Table Of Contents:
Preface xv

Global Navigation Satellite Systems: Present and Future 1(22)

Introduction 1(8)

Current and Planned GNSS Constellations 2(1)

GNSS User Architectures 3(3)

Current GNSS Applications 6(2)

Positioning Performance Measures 8(1)

GNSS Signal Improvements 9(3)

Additional GPS Frequencies 10(1)

Higher Accuracy Ranging 10(1)

Longer Ranging Codes 11(1)

Higher Transmit Power Levels 11(1)

Advanced Receiver Technology 12(2)

Conventional Receivers 12(1)

FPGA-Based Receivers 13(1)

Software-Defined GNSS Receivers 14(1)

Road Map: How To Use This Book 14(6)

Further Reading 20(3)

References 21(2)

GNSS Signal Acquisition and Tracking 23(32)

Introduction 23(1)

GNSS Signal Background 23(5)

BOC Signal Modulation 25(1)

PRN Codes 26(2)

Searching for PSK Signals 28(6)

Tracking PSK Signals 34(5)

Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) 34(2)

Frequency-Locked Loop (FLL) 36(1)

Delay-Locked Loop (DLL) 37(2)

Searching for BOC Signals 39(3)

Tracking BOC Signals 42(13)

BOC Tracking Using a Single Sideband (SSB) 44(1)

BOC Tracking with Multiple-Gate Discriminators (MGD) 44(2)

BOC Tracking with the Bump-Jumping (BJ) Algorithm 46(2)

BOC Tracking with the Dual Estimator (DE) 48(5)

References 53(2)

GNSS Navigation: Estimating Position, Velocity, and Time 55(32)

Overview 55(1)

Position, Velocity, and Time (PVT) Estimation 56(13)

Estimating Receiver Position and Clock Bias 56(6)

Impact of Ionosphere Errors 62(1)

Impact of Satellite-User Geometry (DOP) 63(1)

Estimating Receiver Velocity and Clock Drift 64(2)

Estimating Time 66(1)

PVT Estimation Using an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) 67(1)

Enhanced Accuracy via Carrier Phase Positioning 67(1)

Error Sources 67(2)

GNSS Simulator 69(5)

GNSS Simulator Measurement Details 69(2)

GNSS Simulator Interface Files 71(2)

Postprocessing GNSS Simulator Output Files 73(1)

GNSS Simulator Examples 74(10)

Example 1: Simple Navigation 74(1)

Example 2: Traveling Between Destinations 75(2)

Example 3: Waypoint Navigation Using FlightGear 77(3)

Example 4: Dual-Frequency Calculation 80(2)

Example 5: Adding Galileo Satellites 82(2)

Example 6: Spacecraft-Based Receiver 84(1)

Summary 84(2)

Programs and Tools Provided on the DVD 86(1)

References 86(1)

Differential GNSS: Accuracy and Integrity 87(34)

Introduction to DGNSS 87(1)

Fundamentals of Differential GNSS 87(10)

Error Sources and Degree of Spatial Correlation 89(4)

Local Versus Regional DGNSS Corrections and DGNSS Networks 93(1)

Means of Distributing DGNSS Corrections 94(2)

Managing the Latency of DGNSS Corrections 96(1)

DGNSS Integrity Threats and Mitigations 97(17)

Integrity Threats from GNSS Faults 98(10)

Integrity Threats from DGNSS System Faults 108(1)

Integrity Threats from Signal Propagation Anomalies 109(5)

Summary 114(1)

Data Provided on the DVD 115(6)

References 115(6)

A GPS Software Receiver 121(28)

Introduction and Background 121(1)

License, Development Environments, and Tools 122(1)

License 122(1)

GNU/Linux 122(1)

Microsoft Windows 123(1)

Apple Mac OS X 123(1)

Displaying the Receiver Output 123(1)

Example Data Sets 123(1)

Data Set 1 124(1)

Data Set 2, for Use with WAAS Corrections Data 124(1)

Using the fastgps Software Receiver 124(7)

Configuration File 124(6)

Output Files 130(1)

Fastgps Software Receiver Architecture 131(14)

Timing and Clock Management 132(1)

Main Processing Loop 133(1)

Acquisition 133(3)

Tracking 136(6)

Navigation 142(3)

Suggested Future Improvements 145(1)

Further Reading 146(3)

References 146(3)

Integration of GNSS and INS: Part 1 149(28)

Introduction 149(1)

Inertial Navigation 150(9)

Inertial Sensors 150(1)

Coordinate Frames 151(1)

Mechanization Equations 152(5)

System Initialization 157(1)

INS Error Model 157(2)

GNSS/INS Integration Concepts 159(6)

Motivation for GNSS/INS Integration 159(1)

Integration Architecture Overview 160(1)

Loose GNSS/INS Integration 160(2)

Tight GNSS/INS Integration 162(2)

Deep GNSS/INS Integration 164(1)

Filtering/Estimation Algorithms 165(4)

Overview of Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) for GNSS/INS 165(3)

Time Evolution of a GNSS/INS System 168(1)

GNSS/INS Integration Implementation 169(3)

IMU Sensor Error Models 169(3)

GNSS/INS Integration: Step-by-Step 172(1)

Practical Considerations 172(2)

Lever Arm 173(1)

Timing Requirements 173(1)

Summary and Further Reading 174(3)

References 175(2)

Integration of GNS and INS: Part 2 177(14)

Introduction 177(1)

Low-Cost GNSS/INS Integrated Navigator 177(4)

Vehicle Sideslip Estimation 181(5)

Motivation 181(3)

Observability 184(2)

INS To Aid High-Accuracy GNSS 186(3)

GNSS Ambiguity-Resolution Overview 187(1)

Benefits of INS to Ambiguity Resolution 188(1)

Software Examples 189(2)

References 189(2)

Integrated LADAR, INS, and GNSS Navigation 191(20)

Introduction 191(1)

LADAR-Based TERRAIN Integration Methodology 192(4)

LADAR-Based Terrain-Referenced Position Estimation 196(6)

Position Estimate and SSE Surface 196(2)

Exhaustive Grid Search 198(2)

Gradient-Based Search 200(2)

Estimation of Inertial Velocity Error 202(1)

Case Studies of TERRAIN System Performance 202(9)

General Positioning System 202(3)

Precision Approach Guidance System 205(5)

References 210(1)

Combining GNSS with RF Systems 211(34)

Location System Alternatives 211(2)

RF Location types and Classifications 213(13)

Location by Proximity 214(3)

Location by Radio Direction Finding (DF) and Angle of Arrival (AOA) 217(2)

Location Using Doppler Frequency 219(2)

Location Estimation Using Signal Strength 221(2)

Location Using Time, Phase, and Differential Timing of Arrival (TOA, POA, and TDOA) 223(3)

Estimation Methods 226(8)

Deterministic Estimation Using Triangulation 226(3)

Deterministic Estimation Using Nearest Neighbor 229(2)

Nonranging-Based Location Estimation 231(1)

Probabilistic Estimation Using Centroid/Center of Mass 232(1)

Bayesian State Estimation 232(2)

Integration Methods 234(1)

Least-Squares Integration 234(1)

Kalman Filter Integration 235(1)

Contextual Processing 235(1)

Example Systems 235(5)

Pseudolites 235(2)

Synchrolites 237(1)

Self-Synchronizing Networks 237(1)

GPS and Relative Navigation 238(1)

TV-Based Location 238(1)

Integration of Cellular Location Systems and GNSS 239(1)

Examples Included on the DVD 240(1)

RF Antennas 240(1)

Doppler Calculations 240(1)

K-Nearest Neighbor Plot 241(1)

Further Reading 241(4)

References 241(4)

Aviation Applications 245(24)

Introduction 245(1)

Classes of Aviation Augmentation Systems 245(2)

Benefits of GPS and Augmentations to Aviation Users 247(2)

Oceanic Flight 247(1)

Overland Flight: En Route, Terminal, and Nonprecision Approach 248(1)

Precision Approach and Landing 248(1)

Future of GNSS Navigation in Aviation 249(3)

GNSS Modernization 249(2)

Next-Generation Air Traffic Management System (NextGen) 251(1)

Backup Navigation Capabilities for Aviation 251(1)

Functionality of Aviation Augmentation Systems 252(17)

Augmentation System Performance Requirements 252(1)

Error Bounding Under Nominal Conditions 253(4)

Error Bounding Under Anomalous Conditions 257(4)

Monitoring 261(3)

Conclusion 264(1)

Further Reading 265(1)

References 265(4)

Integrated GNSS and Loran Systems 269(22)

Introduction 269(1)

Loran Overview 269(3)

Loran-C 269(2)

eLoran 271(1)

Theory of Operation 272(3)

Historical Reasons for GNSS/Loran Integration 275(1)

Integration Scenarios 276(12)

Position-Domain Integration 276(2)

Range-Domain Integration 278(3)

Deja Vu Navigation: A Case Study of Range-Domain Integration 281(2)

Integrity with Range-Domain Integration 283(3)

Improved Accuracy for Loran Integrity 286(1)

Tracking Loop Domain Integration 287(1)

Conclusions 288(3)

References 288(3)

Indoor and Weak Signal Navigation 291(38)

Introduction 291(1)

Signal Processing Considerations Related to Weak Signals 292(8)

Acquistion of Weak Signals 294(1)

Clock Stability and Integration Times 295(1)

Tracking of Weak Signals 296(1)

Cross-Correlation and Interfering Signals 297(1)

Multipath Mitigation 298(2)

Benefits of Future GNSS 300(1)

Aiding Possibilities and Supportive Systems 300(3)

Assistance 300(1)

Supportive Systems for GNSS 301(2)

Navigation Algorithms for Difficult Signal Conditions 303(3)

Constraints on User Motion 304(1)

Map Matching 305(1)

Adaptive Algorithms 305(1)

Quality and Integrity Monitoring 306(13)

Introduction to Integrity Monitoring 306(1)

Reliability Testing 307(1)

Weighted Least-Squares Notation 308(2)

Residuals and Redundancy 310(1)

Global Test 311(1)

Local Test 312(2)

Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis 314(1)

Parameters for Fault Detection and Exclusion 314(1)

Multiple Outliers 315(1)

Fault Detection and Exclusion in Kalman Filtering 316(1)

Quality Control 316(1)

The Practical Side of Quality Control 317(2)

Examples Included on the DVD 319(4)

Example 1: Acquisition of Weak Signals 319(3)

Example 2: Fault Detection and Exclusion 322(1)

Summary 323(1)

Further Reading 324(5)

References 324(5)

Space Applications 329(18)

Introduction 329(1)

Operational Considerations 329(6)

Spacecraft Velocity 330(1)

Orbit Geometry 330(2)

Antenna Direction 332(1)

Size and Power 332(1)

Multipath 333(1)

Signal Strength 333(1)

Environment 334(1)

Applications 335(5)

Precise Orbit Determination 335(1)

Real-Time Navigation 335(1)

Formation Flying and Proximity Operations 336(1)

Remote Sensing 337(1)

Attitude Determination 338(1)

High-Altitude GNSS 339(1)

Launch, Entry, and Landing 340(1)

GNSS Modernization 340(1)

Example: Processing Raw Measurements from the GRACE Satellite 341(3)

Summary 344(3)

References 344(3)

Geodesy and Surveying 347(34)

Introduction and Background 347(3)

GNSS Surveying 348(1)

GNSS Geodesy 349(1)

Technical Overview 350(10)

The Data Models and Processing Strategies of GNSS Geodesy and Surveying 350(1)

Mathematical Models 351(5)

Baseline Processing 356(3)

Network Processing for Positioning 359(1)

GNSS Ground Infrastructure---Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) Networks 360(7)

The IGS Infrastructure 361(3)

National CORS Infrastructure 364(3)

Surveying and Geodesy Applications and Operational Modes 367(9)

GNSS Surveying 368(4)

GNSS Geodesy 372(4)

The Future: The Next-Generation GNSS 376(5)

The Benefits of More Satellites and Signals 376(1)

Improvements to the GNSS Infrastructure 377(1)

Applications and the Future 378(1)

References 379(2)

Atmospheric Sensing Using GNSS Occultations 381(18)

Introduction 381(1)

Occultation Measurements 382(2)

Atmospheric Retrievals 384(6)

Derivation of Bending Angle Profiles 385(2)

Ionospheric Calibration 387(1)

Derivation of Atmospheric Profiles 388(2)

Weather and Climate Applications 390(2)

Recent Advances 392(2)

Scripts and Data Included on the DVD 394(1)

Further Reading 394(5)

References 395(4)

Remote Sensing Using Bistatic GNSS Reflections 399(38)

Introduction 399(3)

General Discussion of Traditional Remote Sensing 400(1)

Remote Sensing Using Reflected GNSS Signals 401(1)

Reflection Geometry 402(1)

Estimating the Surface Reflection Point Location 403(1)

Delay and Doppler Spreading over the Surface 403(1)

Signal Processing 403(7)

Detection and Surface Mapping 405(2)

Averaging Consecutive Correlations 407(1)

Delay Waveforms and Delay Doppler Maps 408(2)

Remote Sensing Theory 410(8)

Bistatic Surface Scattering 410(3)

The Bistatic Radar Cross Section 413(1)

Sea Surface Modeling 414(2)

Bistatic Scattering from Land 416(1)

Bistatic Scattering from Sea Ice 417(1)

Ocean Altimetry 418(3)

Motivation 418(1)

Aircraft Altimetry Measurements 418(2)

GNSS Ocean Altimetry from Space 420(1)

Ocean Wind and Wave Sensing 421(3)

Aircraft Wind and Wave Measurements 421(2)

Wave Sensing from Spacecraft 423(1)

GNSS Bistatic Land and Ice Sensing 424(8)

The History and Applications of GNSS Land Reflections 424(2)

Spacecraft-Detected Land Reflections 426(1)

The History and Applications of GNSS Ice Reflections 427(1)

Spacecraft-Detected Sea Ice Reflections 428(4)

Data Provided on the DVD 432(1)

Specular Point Calculation Scripts 432(1)

Surface Scattering Model 433(1)

Spacecraft Data and Processing Tools 433(1)

Further Reading 433(4)

References 434(3)

New Navigation Signals and Future Systems in Evolution 437(48)

The History of GNSS 437(2)

GPS 437(2)

Modulation of Satellite Carrier Signals 439(1)

Motivation for Evolution 439(2)

Main Concept of Operation for Galileo 440(1)

New Modulation Opportunities 441(24)

Existing Spreading Symbol---BPSK Modulation 442(3)

Binary Offset Carrier (BOC) Modulation 445(8)

Multiplex BOC Modulation 453(2)

Composite BOC Modulation 455(2)

Time Multiplex BOC Modulation 457(2)

Other Spreading Symbol Modulation Options 459(2)

Alternative BOC (AltBOC) Modulation 461(4)

Signal Multiplex Techniques 465(3)

QPSK 466(1)

Interplex 467(1)

Other Techniques 468(1)

Interference 468(10)

Performance Metrics 470(3)

Spectral Separation Coefficients (SSC) 473(5)

Listing of Proposed Systems and Signal Characteristics 478(4)

Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems I: GPS 479(1)

Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems II: Galileo 480(1)

Global CDMA Satellite Navigation Systems III: COMPASS 481(1)

Summary 482(3)

References 483(2)
About the Editors 485(1)
About the Contributors 485(6)
Index 491