Part A Materials Measurement System
1 Measurement Principles and Structures............ ........................ 3
1.1 W hat Is Metrology? ............................................................... 3
1.2 The Roots and Evolution of Metrology....................................... 3
1.3 BIPM: The Birth of the Meter Convention ........................ 6
1.4 BIPM: The First 75 Years .................................................. 7
1.5 Quantum Standards: A Metrological Revolution............................. 8
1.6 Regional Metrology Organizations ................................................ 9
1.7 Traceability of Measurements....................................................... 10
1.8 Mutual Recognition of NMI Standards: The CIPM MRA........ ........... 10
1.9 Metrology in the 21st Century ............................................... ....... 12
1.10 The SI System and New Science ..............................................i....... 14
References.................................................................. ............ 16
2 Measurement Strategy and Quality ...................................... 17
2.1 Sam pling .................................... ............................ 18
2.2 The Traceability of Measurements ................................................. 23
2.3 Statistical Evaluation of Results.................................................... 27
2.4 Validation ........................................................................... . . 4 7
2.5 Inter-laboratory Comparisons and Proficiency Testing..................... 57
2.6 (Certified) Reference Materials ....................................... 67
2.7 Reference Procedures ........................................................ .... 75
2.8 Accreditation and Peer Assessment .............................................. 84
2.9 Hum an Aspects in a Laboratory .................................................... 88
2.10 Further Reading ................................................................. 92
References.............................. .............................. 92
3 Materials and Their Characteristics: Overview ................................. 95
3.1 Basic Features of Materials .......................................................... 96
3.2 Classification of Materials Characterization Methods ....................... 101
References.................................. .......................................................... 102
Part B Measurement Methods for Compositionand Structure
4 Chem ical Com position ............................................................ ....... . 105
4.1 Bulk Chem ical Characterization ..................................................... 105
4.2 Microanalytical Chemical Characterization ...................................... 138
Referen ces............................................................................ ..... ....... 14 8
5 Nanoscopic Architecture and Microstructure ................................... 153
5.1 Fundamentals ............................. .. ........... 159
5.2 Crystalline and Amorphous Structure Analysis................................. 180
5.3 Lattice Defects and Impurities Analysis......................................... 187
5.4 Molecular Architecture Analysis.................................................... 206
5.5 Texture, Phase Distributions, and Finite Structures Analysis........... 217
References............................. 225
6 Surface and Interface Characterization.................................... 229
6.1 Surface Chem ical Analysis ......................................................... 230
6.2 Surface Topography Analysis .................................. .................. 255
Referen ces ................................................... .............................. 27 2
Part C Measurement Methods for Materials Properties
7 Mechanical Properties ..................................... 283
7.1 Elasticity ........................................ 284
7.2 Plasticity .............................................................. ............ 299
7.3 Hardness ........................................ ...... ............. .................. 311
7.4 Strength ............................................... 333
7.5 Fracture Mechanics.................................. ...................... 353
7.6 Perm eation and Diffusion .................................. ........................ 371
References. ......... ........ ................................. ...................... 387
8 Thermal Properties.............................. 399
8.1 Thermal Conductivity and Specific Heat Capacity............................. 400
8.2 Enthalpy of Phase Transition, Adsorption and Mixing...................... 408
8.3 Thermal Expansion and Thermomechanical Analysis....................... 415
8.4 Therm ogravim etry ....................................................................... 417
8.5 Temperature Sensors ............................................................ 417
References.................................................................................... 4 28
9 Electrical Properties ...................................... 431
9.1 Electrical Materials ...................................... 432
9.2 Electrical Conductivity of Metallic Materials............................. 439
9.3 Electrolytical Conductivity ............................................................ 444
9.4 Sem iconductors................. ........................................................... 453
9.5 Measurement of Dielectric Materials Properties............................... 472
References........................................................... ............ 481
10 Magnetic Properties...................................... 485
10.1 M agnetic M aterials ...................................................................... 486
10.2 Soft and Hard Magnetic Materials: (Standard) Measurement
Techniques for Properties Related to the B(H) Loop ...................... 490
10.3 Magnetic Characterization in a Pulsed Field Magnetometer (PFM) .... 510
10.4 Properties of Magnetic Thin Films................................................... 522
References............................... 527
11 Optical Properties ................................................................................. 531
11.1 Fundamentals of Optical Spectroscopy........................................ 532
11.2 M icro-spectroscopy ................................................................ . 549
11.3 Magnetooptical Measurement........................................................ 553
11.4 Nonlinear Optics and Ultrashort Pulsed Laser Application ............. 558
11.5 Fiber Optics ....................................................................... 570
11.6 Evaluation Technologies for Optical Disk Memory Materials.............. 585
11.7 Optical Sensing ............................................................. . ..... 593
References.............................. 600
Part D Measurement Methods for Materials Performance
12 Corrosion ....................................................................................... 611
12.1 Background .............................................................. ....... 612
12.2 Conventional Electrochemical Test Methods.................................... 615
12.3 Novel Electrochemical Test Methods ............................................. 639
12.4 Exposure and On-Site Testing ...................................................... 643
12.5 Corrosion Without Mechanical Loading..................................... 643
12.6 Corrosion with Mechanical Loading ............................................ 649
12.7 Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking .................................. 659
12.8 High-Tem perature Corrosion......................................................... 662
12.9 Inhibitor Testing and Monitoring of Efficiency.......................... 676
References.............................. 681
13 Friction and W ear.................................................................................... 685
13.1 Definitions and Units ................................................................... 685
13.2 Selection of Friction and Wear Tests ............................................. 689
13.3 Tribological Test Methods....................................... .............. 693
13.4 Friction Measurement.......... ................ .... .... .. 696
13.5 Quantitative Assessment of Wear ....................................... ............. 701
13.6 Characterization of Surfaces and Debris............................... ....... . 706
References............................. 709
14 Biogenic Impact on Materials ...................................... 711
14.1 Modes of Materials - Organisms Interactions.................................. 712
14.2 Biological Testing of Wood ...................................... 716
14.3 Testing of Organic Materials .......................................... ................ 731
14.4 Biological Testing of Inorganic Materials.................................... 753
14.5 Coatings and Coating Materials .................................................... 768
14.6 Reference Organisms ............................. .... 775
References............................. .. ................................... ................. ... 780
15 Material-Environment Interactions ........................................ 789
15.1 Materials and the Environment........................... 789
15.2 Em issions from Materials ............................................................. 804
15.3 Fire Physics and Chem istry........................................................... 813
References................................................................................... .......... 825
16 Performance Control and Condition Monitoring ............................. 831
16.1 Nondestructive Evaluation .......................................................... 832
16.2 Industrial Radiology .................................................................. 844
16.3 Computerized Tomography - Application to Organic Materials...... 858
16.4 Computerized Tomography - Application to Inorganic Materials...... 864
16.5 Computed Tomography - Application to Composites
and M icrostructures.................................. ........................ .... 870
16.6 Structural Health Monitoring - Embedded Sensors.......................... 875
16.7 Characterization of Reliability .................................................... .. 891
16.A Append ix .................................................................................. .. 90 7
References......................................................... 908
Part E Modeling and Simulation Methods
17 Molecular Dynamics ..................................... 915
17.1 Basic Idea of Molecular Dynam ics .................................................. 915
17.2 Diffusionless Transformation.......................... 928
17.3 Rapid Solidification .................................................................. ... 935
17.4 Diffusion ................................................................................ . 946
17.5 Sum m ary ............................................................................ . . 950
References.......................................................................................... 9 50
18 Continuum Constitutive Modeling ..................................... 953
18.1 Phenomenological Viscoplasticity .......................................... ... 953
18.2 Material Anisotropy ............................................................ . ... 958
18.3 Metallothermomechanical Coupling ............................................. 963
18.4 Crystal Plasticity .......................................................................... 966
References.............................. 970
19 Finite Element and Finite Difference Methods.................................. 973
19.1 Discretized Numerical Schemes for FEM and FDM............................. 975
19.2 Basic Derivations in FEM and FDM ..................................... 977
19.3 The Equivalence of FEM and FDM Methods.................................... 981
19.4 From Mechanics to Mathematics: Equilibrium Equations
and Partial Differential Equations ........................................................ 982
19.5 From Mathematics to Mechanics:
Characteristic of Partial Differential Equations ................................ 987
19.6 Time Integration for Unsteady Problems........................................ 989
19.7 Multidimensional Case ................................. 991
19.8 Treatm ent of the Nonlinear Case .................................................. 995
19.9 Advanced Topics in FEM and FDM ................................................. 995
19.10 Free Codes ....................................... 999
References .................................................................................... 999
20 The CALPHAD M ethod ............................................................................ 1001
20.1 Outline of the CALPHAD Method .................. ............. ................... 1002
20.2 Incorporation of the First Principle Calculations
into the CALPHAD Approach ............................................................ 1006
20.3 Prediction of Thermodynamic Properties of Compound Phases
with First Principle Calculations .................................................... 1019
References. .................. . ...................................... .. . ...... ... .. . . ....... . ........ 1030
21 Phase Field ......................................................... ..................... 1031
21.1 Basic Concept of the Phase-Field Method ....................................... 1032
21.2 Total Free Energy of Microstructure ...................................... ......... 10 33
21.3 Solidification ........................................ 1042
21.4 Diffusion-Controlled Phase Transformation .................................... 1045
21.5 Structural Phase Transform ation ............................................ ... .. . 1048
21.6 Microstructure Evolution ................... . ..................................... 1050
References .................................. . ................... ..... .. 10514
22 M onte Carlo Sim ulation ....................................................................... 1057
22.1 Fundamentals of the Monte Carlo Method ...................................... 1057
2 2.2 Improved Al gorithms ..................................... ................. 1061
22.3 Quantum Monte Carlo Method ....................................................... 1066
22.4 Bicritical Phenom ena in 0(5) Model.............................................. . 1073
2 2.5 Superconductivity Vortex State .................................. 1077
22.6 Effects of Randomness in Vortex States ....................................... .... 1083
22.7 Quantum Critical Phenomena........................................................ 1086
References ....... . ........................................ ........................ .... .... .. 1089