简介
Summary:
Publisher Summary 1
Electrochemical Sensor Analysis(ECSA) presents the recent advances in electrochemical (bio)sensors and their practical applications in real clinical, environment, food and industry related samples, as well as in the safety and security arena. In a single source, it covers the entire field of electrochemical (bio)sensor designs and characterizations.
The 38 chapters are grouped in seven sections: 1) Potentiometric sensors, 2) Voltammetric sensors, 3) Electrochemical gas sensors 4) Enzyme-based sensors 5) Affinity biosensors 6) Thick and thin film biosensors and 7) Novel trends. Written by experts working in the diverse technological and scientific fields related to electrochemical sensors, each section provides an overview of a specific class of electrochemical sensors and their applications.
An accompanying CD-ROM contains 53 related analytical protocols detailing the steps required for practical applications and some design-related issues. Each protocol first describes the objectives of the procedure, followed by a detailed list of all the required materials, reagents, and solutions. The steps to prepare the (bio)sensor including its calibration, measurement sequences followed by sample treatment (if applied) and analysis are described in detail. Each procedure ends with some brief discussions of the typical results expected as well as with selected recommended literature.
This interdisciplinary text will be useful for researchers and professionals alike.
* Covers applications and problem solving (sensitivity, interferences) in real sample analysis
* Details procedures to construct and characterize electrochemical (bio)sensors
目录
Front cover 1
Electrochemical Sensor Analysis 6
Copyright page 3
Contributors to Volume 49 8
Volumes in the Series 20
Contents 24
Editors\u2019 Preface 50
Series Editors\u2019 Preface 54
Part 1: Fundamentals Andapplications 56
Potentiometric Sensors 58
Chapter 1. Clinical analysis of blood gases and electrolytes by ion-selective sensors 60
1.1. Introduction 60
1.2. General Characteristics of Clinical Analysis of Electrolytes and Gases 61
1.3. Electrochemical Measurement in Clinical Analysis 65
1.4. Application of Sensors from the Producer\u2019s Point of View 67
1.5. Sensors Used in Routine Clinical Measurements: A Brief Overview 69
1.6. Application of Sensors: The User\u2019s Point of View 73
1.7. The Prospects for use of New ion or Gas-Selective Sensors 76
1.8. Conclusions 76
Acknowledgments 77
References 77
Chapter 2. Ion-selective electrodes in trace level analysis of heavy metals: Potentiometry for the XXI century 80
2.1. Introduction: Historical Milestones 80
2.2. Potentiometry and its Place Among Analytical Techniques 81
2.3. The State-of-the-Art of Potentiometric Sensors 83
2.4. Polymeric Membrane ISEs with Liquid Inner Contact 85
2.5. Polymeric Membrane ISEs with Solid Inner Contact 98
2.6. Ion-Selective Electrodes in Trace Level Analysis 100
2.7. Future Directions 102
Acknowledgment 104
References 104
Chapter 3. Enantioselective, potentiometric membrane electrodes: design, mechanism of potential development and applications for pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis 108
3.1. Overview 108
3.2. Potential Development for EPME 109
3.3. Design of EPME 112
3.4. Application of EPMEs in Enantioanalysis 114
3.5. Conclusions 123
References 124
Chapter 4. Ion sensors with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducers 128
4.1. Introduction 128
4.2. Application 132
4.3. Conclusions 136
Acknowledgments 136
References 137
Chapter 5. Light-addressable potentiometric sensors (LAPS): recent trends and applications 142
5.1. Introduction 142
5.2. Theoretical Background 143
5.3. Applications of LAPS 151
5.4. Conclusions 170
References 172
Voltammetric (Bio)Sensors 184
Chapter 6. Stripping-based electrochemical metal sensors for environmental monitoring 186
6.1. Introduction 186
6.2. Principles 187
6.3. Working Electrodes for Stripping Analysis: From Mercury Electrodes to Disposable Strips 190
6.4. Bismuth-Based Metal Sensors 191
6.5. In situ Metal Sensors 193
6.6. Remote Metal Sensors 193
6.7. Conclusions 194
Acknowledgments 195
References 195
Chapter 7. Graphite-epoxy electrodes for stripping analysis 198
7.1. Introduction 198
7.2. Construction and Surface Characterization of Composite Electrodes 201
7.3. Stripping Analysis with Non-Modified Composites 203
7.4. Stripping Analysis with Graphite-Epoxy Electrodes Modified with Bismuth Nitrate 209
7.5. Conclusions 213
Acknowledgments 214
References 214
Chapter 8. Voltammetric sensors for the determination of antioxidant properties in dermatology and cosmetics 218
8.1. Voltammetric Methods 218
8.2. Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense Systems: A Rapid Survey 221
8.3. Electrochemistry for the Study of Skin and Cosmetics Antioxidant Properties 224
8.4. Conclusions 234
References 234
Chapter 9. Sensoristic approach to the evaluation of integral environmental toxicity 236
9.1. Biosensors of Integral Toxicity 236
9.2. Photosensors of Environmental Permanence 238
9.3. Biosensors for the Determination of Radicals 239
References 242
Chapter 10. Peptide-modified electrodes for detecting metal ions 244
10.1. Introduction 244
10.2. Application 250
10.3. Conclusions 262
Acknowledgments 263
References 263
Chapter 11. Reproducible electrochemical analysis of phenolic compounds by high-pressure liquid chromatography with oxygen-terminated diamond sensor 266
11.1. Introduction 266
11.2. Applications 269
11.3. Conclusions 283
References 284
Gas Sensors 288
Chapter 12. Chemical sensors for mercury vapour 290
12.1. Introduction 290
12.2 Mercury\u2013Gold Interaction 291
12.3. Transducers for Mercury Sensors Based on thin Gold Layers 293
12.4. Selectivity Improvement 297
12.5. Calibration 300
12.6. Conclusion 303
Acknowledgment 304
References 304
Enzyme Based Sensors 308
Chapter 13. Application of electrochemical enzyme biosensors for food quality control 310
13.1. Introduction 310
13.2. Food Quality Control 310
13.3. Process Control Applications 343
13.4. Conclusions and Some Remarks from the Commercial Point of View 343
References 344
Chapter 14. Electrochemical biosensors for heavy metals based on enzyme inhibition 354
14.1. Introduction 354
14.2. Parameters Affecting the Enzyme Inhibition System 356
14.3. Analytical Characterization of Biosensors-Based Enzyme Inhibition 357
14.4. Conclusions 361
14.5. Future Perspectives 362
References 362
Chapter 15. Ultra-sensitive determination of pesticides via cholinesterase-based sensors for environmental analysis 366
15.1. Introduction 366
15.2. Application 369
15.3. Conclusions 381
References 382
Chapter 16. Amperometric enzyme sensors for the detection of cyanobacterial toxins in environmental samples 386
16.1. Introduction 386
16.2. Application 393
16.3. Conclusions 401
Acknowledgments 402
References 402
Chapter 17. Electrochemical biosensors based on vegetable tissues and crude extracts for environmental, food and pharmaceutical analysis 412
17.1. Introduction 412
17.2. Application 421
17.3. Conclusions 429
Acknowledgments 429
References 429
Affinity Biosensors 434
Chapter 18. Immunosensors for clinical and environmental applications based on electropolymerized films: analysis of cholera toxin and hepatitis C virus antibodies in water and serum 436
18.1. Introduction 436
18.2. Immobilization Techniques 439
18.3. Detection Techniques for Immobilized Analytes 447
18.4. Conclusion 454
References 454
Chapter 19. Genosensor technology for electrochemical sensing of nucleic acids by using different transducers 458
19.1. Introduction 458
19.2. Applications of Electrochemical Genosensor Technologies 459
19.3. Conclusion 463
Acknowledgments 464
References 464
Chapter 20. DNA-electrochemical biosensors for investigating DNA damage 468
20.1. Introduction 468
20.2. AFM Images of DNA-Electrochemical Biosensors 469
20.3. DNA-Electrochemical Biosensors for Detection of DNA Damage 472
20.4. DNA Damage Produced by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 473
20.5. Conclusion 487
References 488
Chapter 21. Electrochemical genosensing of food pathogens based on graphite-epoxy composite 494
21.1. Introduction 494
21.2. DNA Electrochemical Biosensors 499
21.3. Conclusions 514
Acknowledgments 516
References 516
Chapter 22. Electrochemical immunosensing of food residues by affinity biosensors and magneto sensors 522
22.1. Introduction 522
22.2. Electrochemical Biosensing of Food Residues Based on Universal Affinity Biocomposite Platforms 534
22.3. Electrochemical Biosensing of Food Residues Based on Magnetic Beads and M-GEC Electrochemical Transducer 539
22.4. Conclusions 542
Acknowledgments 544
References 544
Thick and Thin Film Biosensors 550
Chapter 23. Screen-printed electrochemical (bio)sensors in biomedical, environmental and industrial applications 552
23.1. Introduction 552
23.2. Biomedical 554
23.3. Environmental 576
23.4. Conclusions 596
Acknowledgments 597
References 597
Chapter 24. Mediated enzyme screen-printed electrode probes for clinical, environmental and food analysis 614
24.1. Introduction 614
24.2. Application 618
24.3. Conclusions 633
References 635
Chapter 25. Coupling of screen-printed electrodes and magnetic beads for rapid and sensitive immunodetection: polychlorinated biphenyls analysis in environmental samples 640
25.1. Introduction 640
25.2. Application 645
25.3. Conclusions 654
Acknowledgment 654
References 654
Chapter 26. Thick- and thin-film DNA sensors 658
26.1. Introduction 658
26.2. Applications 675
26.3. Conclusions 691
References 692
Chapter 27. Screen-printed enzyme-free electrochemical sensors for clinical and food analysis 698
27.1. Introduction and Application 698
27.2. Conclusion 717
Acknowledgment 719
References 719
Chapter 28. Analysis of meat, wool and milk for glucose, lactate and organo-phosphates at industrial point-of-need using electrochemical biosensors 722
28.1. Introduction 722
28.2. Electrochemical Biosensors for Milk, Meat and Wool 726
28.3. Testing Biosensors: Brief Comments on Experimental Design and Statistics 735
28.4. Conclusion 736
Disclaimer 737
References 737
Chapter 29. Rapid detection of organophosphates, Ochratoxin A, and Fusarium sp. in durum wheat via screen printed based electrochemical sensors 742
29.1. Introduction 742
29.2. Application 753
29.3. Conclusions 769
Acknowledgments 770
References 770
Novel Trends 774
Chapter 30. Potentiometric electronic tongues applied in ion multidetermination 776
30.1. Introduction 776
30.2. Application 791
30.3. Conclusions 802
Acknowledgments 804
References 804
Chapter 31. Electrochemical sensors for food authentication 810
31.1. Introduction 810
31.2. Application 816
31.3. Conclusions 824
References 824
Chapter 32. From microelectrodes to nanoelectrodes 826
32.1. Introduction 826
32.2. Application 836
32.3. Conclusions 848
References 849
Chapter 33. DNA/RNA aptamers: novel recognition structures in biosensing 856
33.1. Introduction 856
33.2. Applications of Aptamers in Biosensing 862
33.3. Conclusions 877
Acknowledgments 877
References 878
Chapter 34. Miniaturised devices: electrochemical capillary electrophoresis microchips for clinical application 882
34.1. Introduction 882
34.2. Applications 898
34.3. Conclusions 915
Acknowledgments 915
References 915
Chapter 35. Microchip electrophoresis/electrochemistry systems for analysis of nitroaromatic explosives 928
35.1. Introduction 928
35.2. Applications of Microfluidic Devices for Monitoring of Nitrated Organic Explosives 933
35.3. Conclusion 937
Abbreviations 937
Acknowledgments 938
References 938
Chapter 36. Microfluidic-based electrochemical platform for rapid immunological analysis in small volumes 940
36.1. Introduction 940
36.2. Polymer Microfluidic-Based ELISAS with Electrochemical Detection 945
36.3. IMMUSOFT鈩? A Program for Computer-Driven Microfluidic Assays 949
36.4. Performances Exemplified with the Immunoassay of Alkaline Phosphatase 956
36.5. Conclusion and Perspectives 959
References 959
Chapter 37. Scanning electrochemical microscopy in biosensor research 962
37.1. Introduction 962
37.2. Application of SECM in Chemical and Biochemical Sensor Research 970
37.3. Conclusion 987
Acknowledgments 988
References 989
Chapter 38. Gold nanoparticles in DNA and protein analysis 995
38.1. Introduction 995
38.2. DNA Analysis 998
38.3. Proteins Analysis 1005
38.4. Conclusions 1009
Acknowledgements 1010
References 1010
Subject Index 1013
Part 2: Procedures 1029
Potentiometric Sensors 1031
Procedure 1. Measurement of ionized Mg2+ in human blood by ion-selective electrode in automatic blood electrolyte analyzer 1033
1.1. Objectives 1033
1.2. Materials and Instruments 1033
1.3. Sensor Calibration 1035
1.4. Sensor Linearity 1035
1.5. Ionic Interferences on the Ionized Magnesium Result 1036
1.6. Performance of the Method 1037
1.7. Discussion 1038
Selected Literature 1039
Procedure 2. Determination of cesium in natural waters using polymer-based ion-selective electrodes 1041
2.1. Objectives 1041
2.2. Materials and Instruments 1041
2.3. Sensor Preparation and Sample Treatment 1042
2.4. Sensor Calibration and Sample Analysis 1044
2.5. Discussion 1044
Selected Literature 1048
Procedure 3. Enantioanalysis of S-captopril using an enantioselective, potentiometric membrane electrode 1049
3.1. Objectives 1049
3.2. Materials and Instruments 1049
3.3. Electrode Design 1050
3.4. Recommended Procedures: Direct Potentiometry 1050
3.5. Discussion 1051
Selected Literature 1051
Procedure 4. Determination of Ca(II) in wood pulp using a calcium-selective electrode with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) as ion-to-electron transducer 1053
4.1. Objectives 1053
4.2. Materials and Instruments 1053
4.3. Sensor Preparation 1054
4.4. Sensor Calibration 1055
4.5. Analysis of the Samples 1055
4.6. Discussion 1056
Selected Literature 1056
Procedure 5. Titration of trimeprazine base with tartaric acid in isopropanol solution using polyaniline as indicator electrode 1057
5.1. Objectives 1057
5.2. Materials and Instruments 1057
5.3. Sensor Preparation 1057
5.4. Sensor Calibration 1058
5.5. Analysis of the Samples 1059
5.6. Discussion 1060
Selected Literature 1061
Procedure 6. Determination of cadmium concentration and pH value in aqueous solutions by means of a handheld light-addressable potentiometric sensor (LAPS) device 1063
6.1. Objectives 1063
6.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1063
6.3. Laps Set-Up 1064
6.4. Determination of the Cadmium-Ion Concentration and the pH Value 1068
6.5. Discussion 1070
Selected Literature 1072
Voltammetric Sensors 1073
Procedure 7. Determination of lead and cadmium in tap water and soils by stripping analysis using mercury-free graphite-epoxy composite electrodes 1075
7.1. Objectives 1075
7.2. Materials and Instruments 1075
7.3. Construction of the Graphite\u2013Epoxy Composite Electrodes 1076
7.4. Stripping Analysis of Standard Solutions 1077
7.5. Analysis of Lead and Cadmium in Real Samples 1077
7.6. Discussion 1079
Selected Literature 1079
Further Reading 1080
Procedure 8. Direct electrochemical measurement on skin surface using microelectrodes 1081
8.1. Objectives 1081
8.2. Materials and Instruments 1081
8.3. Microelectrode Fabrication 1082
8.4. Microelectrode Characterization 1082
8.5. Skin Analysis 1084
8.6. Discussions 1084
Selected Literature 1086
Procedure 9. Direct electrochemical measurements in dermo-cosmetic creams 1087
9.1. Objectives 1087
9.2. Materials and Instruments 1087
9.3. Direct Electrochemical Measurements Performed in Dermo-Cosmetic Creams 1088
9.4. Validation of the Protocol Measurements 1090
Selected Literature 1094
Appendix A: Composition of Commercial Dermo-Cosmetic Creams 1094
Procedure 10. Biosensor for integral toxicity 1097
10.1. Objectives 1097
10.2. Materials and Apparatus 1097
10.3. Cell Immobilization 1097
10.4. Method 1098
10.5. Application and Discussion 1099
Selected Literature 1101
Procedure 11. Photosensor of environmental permanence 1103
11.1. Objectives 1103
11.2. Materials and Apparatus 1103
11.3. Method 1104
11.4. Application and Discussion 1105
Selected Literature 1105
Procedure 12. Biosensors for the determination of radicals 1107
12.1. Objectives 1107
12.2. Materials and Apparatus 1107
12.3. Biosensor Assembly 1107
12.4. Method 1108
12.5. Application and Discussion 1109
Selected Literature 1109
Procedure 13. The determination of metal ions using peptide-modified electrodes 1111
13.1. Objectives 1111
13.2. Materials and Instruments 1111
13.3. Construction of the Gold Disk Working Electrode 1112
13.4. Construction of the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1113
13.5. Analysis of Metal Ions Using the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1114
13.6. Interference of Metal Ions 1116
13.7. Analysis of Copper Samples Using the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1117
13.8. Discussion 1119
Selected Literature 1119
Continuous Monitoring 1121
Procedure 14. Deposition of boron-doped diamond films and their anodic treatment for the oxygen-terminated diamond sensor 1123
14.1. Objectives 1123
14.2. Materials and Instruments 1123
14.3. Preparation of Oxygen-Terminated Diamond Electrodes 1125
14.4. Electrochemical Properties of Oxygen-Terminated Diamond Electrodes 1126
14.5. Discussion 1126
Selected Literature 1129
Gas Sensors 1131
Procedure 15. Chemoresistor for determination of mercury vapor 1133
15.1. Objectives 1133
15.2. Materials and Instruments 1133
15.3. Sensor Preparation 1134
15.4. Calibration 1135
15.5. Sensor Properties 1136
Selected Literature 1137
Enzyme Electrodes 1139
Procedure 16. Determination of gluconic acid in honey samples using an integrated electrochemical biosensor based on self-assembled monolayer modified gold electrodes 1141
16.1. Objectives 1141
16.2. Materials and Instruments 1141
16.3. Construction of the Biosensor 1142
16.4. Gluconic Acid Determination in Standard Solutions by Batch Amperometry using the Biosensor 1142
16.5. Analysis of Gluconic Acid in Honey Samples 1142
16.6. Discussion 1143
Selected Literature 1145
Procedure 17. Preparation of Prussian blue-modified screen-printed electrodes via a chemical deposition for mass production of stable hydrogen peroxide sensors 1147
17.1. Objectives 1147
17.2. Materials and Instruments 1147
17.3. Sensor Preparation 1148
17.4. Discussion 1150
Selected Literature 1152
Procedure 18. Electrochemical sensor array for the evaluation of astringency in different tea samples 1153
18.1. Objectives 1153
18.2. Materials and Instruments 1153
18.3. Construction of the Array of Sensors 1154
18.4. Samples Preparation 1154
18.5. Amperometric Analysis 1155
18.6. Sensorial Panel Training and Analysis 1155
18.7. Multivariate Data Analysis 1156
18.8. Discussion 1156
18.9. Conclusion 1157
Selected Literature 1158
Procedure 19. Characterization of the PDO asiago cheese by an electronic nose 1159
19.1. Objectives 1159
19.2. Materials and Instruments 1159
19.3. Electronic Nose Apparatus 1159
19.4. Sample Preparation 1160
19.5. Analysis of Samples 1160
19.6. Sensory Analysis 1160
19.7. Discussion 1161
19.8. Conclusion 1166
Selected Literature 1166
Procedure 20. Determination of methyl mercury in fish tissue using electrochemical glucose oxidase biosensors based on invertase inhibition 1167
20.1. Objectives 1167
20.2. Materials and Instruments 1168
20.3. Glucose Oxidase Biosensor Preparation 1168
20.4. Biosensor Calibration and Methyl Mercury Determination in Standard Solutions 1169
20.5. Determination of Methyl Mercury in Real Fish Samples 1175
20.6. Discussion 1175
Selected Literature 1177
Procedure 21. Protein phosphatase inhibition-based biosensor for amperometric microcystin detection in cyanobacterial cells 1179
21.1. Objectives 1179
21.2. Materials and Instruments 1179
21.3. Construction of the PP2A Inhibition-Based Biosensor 1180
21.4. Biosensor Calibration with MC-LR Standard Solutions 1180
21.5. Analysis of Cyanobacteria Samples 1181
21.6. Discussion 1182
Acknowledgments 1183
Selected Literature 1184
Procedure 22. Voltammetric determination of paracetamol in pharmaceuticals using a zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) tissue biosensor 1185
22.1. Objectives 1185
22.2. Materials and Instruments 1185
22.3. Biosensor Preparation 1186
22.4. Analysis of Paracetamol 1188
22.5. Discussion 1188
Selected Literature 1189
Procedure 23. Determination of total phenols in wastewaters using a biosensor based on carbon paste modified with crude extract of jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia L.) 1191
23.1. Objectives 1191
23.2. Materials and Instruments 1191
23.3. Procedures 1192
23.4. Discussion 1193
Selected Literature 1196
Procedure 24. Construction of an enzyme-containing microelectrode array and use for detection of low levels of pesticides 1197
24.1. Objectives 1197
24.2. Materials and Instruments 1197
24.3. (BIO)Sensor Preparation 1198
24.4. (BIO)Sensor Calibration 1201
24.5. Discussion 1202
Selected Literature 1204
Affinity Sensors 1205
Procedure 25. PCB analysis using immunosensors based on magnetic beads and carbon screen-printed electrodes in marine sediment and soil samples 1207
25.1. Objectives 1207
25.2. Materials and Instruments 1207
25.3. Electrochemical Immunosensor using Magnetic Beads as Solid Phase and Carbon Screen-Printed Electrodes (Spces) as Transducers 1208
25.4. Analysis of PCB Mixtures 1209
25.5. PCB Analysis in Marine Sediment and Soil Extracts 1210
25.6. Discussion 1210
Selected Literature 1212
Procedure 26. Construction of amperometric immunosensors for the analysis of cholera antitoxin and comparison of the performances between three different enzyme markers 1213
26.1. Objectives 1213
26.2. Materials and Instruments 1213
26.3. Preparation of Amperometric Immunosensors 1216
26.4. Amperometric Transduction of the Immunoreaction 1216
26.5. Discussion 1221
Selected Literature 1222
Procedure 27. Electrochemical detection of calf thymus double-stranded DNA and single-stranded DNA by using a disposable graphite sensor 1223
27.1. Objectives 1223
27.2. Materials and Instruments 1223
27.3. Construction of Disposable Pencil Graphite Electrode (PGE) 1224
27.4. Voltammetric Detection of DNA by using PGE 1224
27.5. Electrochemical Detection of Calf Thymus Double-Stranded DNA and Single-Stranded DNA 1226
27.6. Discussion 1228
Acknowledgments 1229
Selected Literature 1229
Procedure 28. Atomic force microscopy characterization of a DNA electrochemical biosensor 1231
28.1. Objectives 1231
28.2. Materials and Instruments 1231
28.3. DNA Electrochemical Biosensors Preparation 1232
28.4. Atomic Force Microscopy Experimental Conditions 1232
28.5. Discussion 1233
Selected Literature 1233
Procedure 29. Electrochemical sensing of DNA damage by ROS and RNS produced by redox activation of quercetin, adriamycin and nitric oxide 1235
29.1. Objectives 1235
29.2. Materials and Instruments 1235
29.3. Construction of DNA-Biosensors 1236
29.4. Electrical Transduction of DNA Damage 1237
29.5. Acquisition and Presentation of Voltammetric Data 1237
29.6. Quercetin\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1237
29.7 Adriamycin\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1238
29.8 DETA/NO\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1238
29.9. Discussion 1238
Selected Literature 1239
Procedure 30. Electrochemical determination of Salmonella spp. based on GEC electrodes 1241
30.1. Objectives 1241
30.2. Materials and Instruments 1241
30.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1241
30.4. Construction of the GEC Electrode 1242
30.5. Amplification of the Salmonella Genome 1243
30.6. Electrochemical Determination of Salmonella spp. Based on GEC 1245
References 1247
Procedure 31. Rapid electrochemical verification of PCR amplification of Salmonella spp. based on m-GEC electrodes 1249
31.1. Objectives 1249
31.2. Materials and Instruments 1249
31.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1250
31.4. Construction of the m-Gec Electrode 1250
31.5. Amplification of the Salmonella Genome 1252
31.6. Rapid Electrochemical Verification of PCR Amplification of Salmonella SPP 1252
References 1254
Procedure 32. In situ DNA amplification of Salmonella spp. with magnetic primers for the real-time electrochemical detection based on m-GEC electrodes 1255
32.1. Objectives 1255
32.2. Materials and Instruments 1255
32.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1256
32.4. Construction of the m-GEC Electrode 1256
32.5. In situ Salmonella Genome Amplification with Magnetic Bead Primers 1256
32.6. Rapid Electrochemical Verification of in situ PCR Amplification of Salmonella spp. with Magnetic Bead Primers 1257
References 1259
Procedure 33. Electrochemical determination of atrazine in orange juice and bottled water samples based on Protein A biocomposite electrodes 1261
33.1. Objectives 1261
33.2. Materials and Instruments 1261
33.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1262
33.4. Construction of the ProtA-Geb Electrode 1262
33.5. Purification of the Anti-Triazine Antibodies 1262
33.6. Electrochemical Determination of Atrazine in Orange Juice 1263
References 1264
Procedure 34. Electrochemical determination of sulfonamide antibiotics in milk samples using a class-selective antibody 1265
34.1. Objectives 1265
34.2. Materials and Instruments 1265
34.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1266
34.4. Construction of the m-GEC Electrode 1266
34.5. Purification of the Anti-Sulfonamide Class-Specific Antibodies 1266
34.6. Antibody Binding to the Magnetic Beads 1267
34.7. Electrochemical Determination of Sulfonamide in Milk 1267
References 1269
Thick and Thin Film Biosensors 1271
Procedure 35. Preparation of electrochemical screen-printed immunosensors for progesterone and their application in milk analysis 1273
35.1. Objectives 1273
35.2. Chemicals and Reagents 1273
35.3. Preparation of Immunosensors 1274
35.4. Determination of Progesterone in Milk 1275
35.5. Discussion 1277
Selected Literature 1278
Procedure 36. Genosensor on gold thin-films with enzymatic electrochemical detection of a SARS virus sequence 1279
36.1. Objectives 1279
36.2. Materials and Instruments 1279
36.3. Genosensor Construction 1281
36.4. Hybridisation Assay and Recording of the Analytical Signal 1282
36.5. Discussion 1282
Selected Literature 1284
Procedure 37. Genosensor on streptavidin-modified thick-film carbon electrodes for TNFRSF21 PCR products 1285
37.1. Objectives 1285
37.2. Materials and Instruments 1285
37.3. Genosensor Construction 1287
37.4. PCR Samples Preparation 1287
37.5. Hybridisation Assay and Recording of the Analytical Signal 1289
37.6. Discussion 1289
Selected Literature 1292
Procedure 38. Electrochemical immunosensor for diagnosis of the forest-spring encephalitis 1293
38.1. Objectives 1293
38.2. Materials and Instruments 1293
38.3. Immunosensor Preparation 1294
38.4. Biosensor Calibration 1295
38.5. Sample Analysis 1295
38.6. Discussion 1297
Selected Literature 1297
Procedure 39. Non-enzymatic urea sensor 1299
39.1. Objectives 1299
39.2. Materials and Instruments 1299
39.3. Sensor Preparation 1300
39.4. Sensor Calibration 1300
39.5. Sample Analysis 1301
39.6. Discussion 1303
Procedure 40. Potentiometric determination of antioxidant activity of food and herbal extracts 1305
40.1. Objectives 1305
40.2. Materials and Instruments 1305
40.3. Sensor Preparation 1305
40.4. Sensor Calibration (Once A Day) 1306
40.5. Sample Analysis 1307
40.6. Discussion 1308
Selected Literature 1311
Procedure 41. Convenient and rapid detection of cholinesterase inhibition by pesticides extracted from sheep wool 1313
41.1. Objectives 1313
41.2. Materials and Instruments 1313
41.3. Construction of SPCES 1314
41.4. Extraction of Pesticides from Wool 1318
41.5. Electrochemical Detection of Pesticides in wool Extracts 1319
41.6. Discussion 1320
Selected Literature 1321
Procedure 42. Detection of dichlorvos in durum wheat 1323
42.1. Objectives 1323
42.2. Materials and Instruments 1323
42.3. Biosensor Preparation 1324
42.4. Biosensor Calibration 1324
42.5. Analysis of the Samples 1325
42.6. Discussion 1326
Selected Literature 1326
Procedure 43. Detection of pirimiphos-methyl in durum wheat 1327
43.1. Objectives 1327
43.2. Materials and Instruments 1327
43.3. Biosensor Preparation 1327
43.4. Biosensor Calibration 1328
43.5. Analysis of the Samples 1329
43.6. Discussion 1330
Selected Literature 1330
Procedure 44. Detection of Fusarium sp. via electrochemical sensing 1331
44.1. Objectives 1331
44.2. Materials and Instruments 1331
44.3. Genosensor Preparation 1332
44.4. Electrochemical Detection 1332
44.5. Analysis of the PCR Products 1333
44.6. Discussion 1335
Selected Literature 1335
Novel Trends 1337
Procedure 45. An electronic tongue made of coated wire potentiometric sensors for the determination of alkaline ions: Use of artificial neural networks for its response model 1339
45.1. Objectives 1339
45.2. Materials and Instruments 1339
45.3. Preparation of the Three Coated-Wire Sensors 1340
45.4. Sensor Calibration 1341
45.5. Obtained Results 1351
45.6. Discussion 1352
Selected Literature 1357
Procedure 46. Determination of gold by anodic stripping voltammetry in tap water 1359
46.1. Objectives 1359
46.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1359
46.3. Construction and Pretreatment of CFME 1359
46.4. Stripping Analysis 1360
46.4. Calibration 1360
46.6. Discussion 1360
Selected Literature 1362
Procedure 47. Detection of the aptamer\u2013protein interaction using electrochemical indicators 1363
47.1. Objectives 1363
47.2. Materials and Instruments 1363
47.3. Controlling the Steps of Sensor Preparation 1365
47.4. Calibration of the Sensor in Standard Solution 1365
47.5. Determination of Dissociation Constant 1367
47.6. Sensor Regeneration 1368
Acknowledgments 1369
Selected Literature 1370
Procedure 48. Separation and amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide and l-\u2014ascorbic acid using capillary electrophoresis microchips 1371
48.1. Objectives 1371
48.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1371
48.3. Design of the Amperometric Detector 1373
48.4. Electrophoresis Procedure 1373
48.5. Microchip Performance 1374
48.6. Discussion 1376
Selected Literature 1377
Procedure 49. Analysis of nitroaromatic explosives with microchip electrophoresis using a graphite\u2013epoxy composite detector 1379
49.1. Objectives 1379
49.2. Material and Instruments 1379
49.3. Construction 1380
49.4. Electrophoresis Procedure 1381
49.5. Safety Considerations 1382
Selected Literature 1383
Procedure 50. Determination of sub-pM concentration of human interleukin-\u20141B by microchip ELISA with electrochemical detection 1385
50.1. Objectives 1385
50.2. Materials and Instruments 1385
50.3. Immunoassay Protocol 1386
50.4. Data Treatment 1390
50.5. Discussion 1390
Procedure 51. Kinetic analysis of titanium nitride thin films by scanning electrochemical microscopy 1391
51.1. Objectives 1391
51.2. Materials and Instruments 1391
51.3. Finding the Distance offset of the Measurements 1392
51.4. Approach Curve to Titanium Nitride thin Film 1394
51.5. Discussion 1396
Procedure 52. Analysis of the activity of b&!beta;-\u2014galactosidase from E. Coli by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) 1399
52.1. Objectives 1399
52.2. Materials and Instruments 1399
52.3. Modification of Magnetic Microbeads 1400
52.4. Formation of Microbead Microspots 1400
52.5. Analysis of the Working Solution 1401
52.6. Discussion 1404
Procedure 53. DNA analysis by using gold nanoparticle as labels 1409
53.1. Objectives 1409
53.2. Materials and Instruments 1409
53.3. Construction of the M-GECE 1410
53.4. Electrochemical Detection of the Hybridization of DNA Strand Related to BRCA1 Breast Cancer Gene using a Two Strands Assay Format 1412
53.5. Electrochemical Detection 1412
53.6. Electrochemical Detection of the Hybridization of DNA Strand Related to Cystic Fibrosis Gene, using a Sandwich Assay Format 1413
53.7. Discussion 1414
Selected Literature 1416
Electrochemical Sensor Analysis 6
Copyright page 3
Contributors to Volume 49 8
Volumes in the Series 20
Contents 24
Editors\u2019 Preface 50
Series Editors\u2019 Preface 54
Part 1: Fundamentals Andapplications 56
Potentiometric Sensors 58
Chapter 1. Clinical analysis of blood gases and electrolytes by ion-selective sensors 60
1.1. Introduction 60
1.2. General Characteristics of Clinical Analysis of Electrolytes and Gases 61
1.3. Electrochemical Measurement in Clinical Analysis 65
1.4. Application of Sensors from the Producer\u2019s Point of View 67
1.5. Sensors Used in Routine Clinical Measurements: A Brief Overview 69
1.6. Application of Sensors: The User\u2019s Point of View 73
1.7. The Prospects for use of New ion or Gas-Selective Sensors 76
1.8. Conclusions 76
Acknowledgments 77
References 77
Chapter 2. Ion-selective electrodes in trace level analysis of heavy metals: Potentiometry for the XXI century 80
2.1. Introduction: Historical Milestones 80
2.2. Potentiometry and its Place Among Analytical Techniques 81
2.3. The State-of-the-Art of Potentiometric Sensors 83
2.4. Polymeric Membrane ISEs with Liquid Inner Contact 85
2.5. Polymeric Membrane ISEs with Solid Inner Contact 98
2.6. Ion-Selective Electrodes in Trace Level Analysis 100
2.7. Future Directions 102
Acknowledgment 104
References 104
Chapter 3. Enantioselective, potentiometric membrane electrodes: design, mechanism of potential development and applications for pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis 108
3.1. Overview 108
3.2. Potential Development for EPME 109
3.3. Design of EPME 112
3.4. Application of EPMEs in Enantioanalysis 114
3.5. Conclusions 123
References 124
Chapter 4. Ion sensors with conducting polymers as ion-to-electron transducers 128
4.1. Introduction 128
4.2. Application 132
4.3. Conclusions 136
Acknowledgments 136
References 137
Chapter 5. Light-addressable potentiometric sensors (LAPS): recent trends and applications 142
5.1. Introduction 142
5.2. Theoretical Background 143
5.3. Applications of LAPS 151
5.4. Conclusions 170
References 172
Voltammetric (Bio)Sensors 184
Chapter 6. Stripping-based electrochemical metal sensors for environmental monitoring 186
6.1. Introduction 186
6.2. Principles 187
6.3. Working Electrodes for Stripping Analysis: From Mercury Electrodes to Disposable Strips 190
6.4. Bismuth-Based Metal Sensors 191
6.5. In situ Metal Sensors 193
6.6. Remote Metal Sensors 193
6.7. Conclusions 194
Acknowledgments 195
References 195
Chapter 7. Graphite-epoxy electrodes for stripping analysis 198
7.1. Introduction 198
7.2. Construction and Surface Characterization of Composite Electrodes 201
7.3. Stripping Analysis with Non-Modified Composites 203
7.4. Stripping Analysis with Graphite-Epoxy Electrodes Modified with Bismuth Nitrate 209
7.5. Conclusions 213
Acknowledgments 214
References 214
Chapter 8. Voltammetric sensors for the determination of antioxidant properties in dermatology and cosmetics 218
8.1. Voltammetric Methods 218
8.2. Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense Systems: A Rapid Survey 221
8.3. Electrochemistry for the Study of Skin and Cosmetics Antioxidant Properties 224
8.4. Conclusions 234
References 234
Chapter 9. Sensoristic approach to the evaluation of integral environmental toxicity 236
9.1. Biosensors of Integral Toxicity 236
9.2. Photosensors of Environmental Permanence 238
9.3. Biosensors for the Determination of Radicals 239
References 242
Chapter 10. Peptide-modified electrodes for detecting metal ions 244
10.1. Introduction 244
10.2. Application 250
10.3. Conclusions 262
Acknowledgments 263
References 263
Chapter 11. Reproducible electrochemical analysis of phenolic compounds by high-pressure liquid chromatography with oxygen-terminated diamond sensor 266
11.1. Introduction 266
11.2. Applications 269
11.3. Conclusions 283
References 284
Gas Sensors 288
Chapter 12. Chemical sensors for mercury vapour 290
12.1. Introduction 290
12.2 Mercury\u2013Gold Interaction 291
12.3. Transducers for Mercury Sensors Based on thin Gold Layers 293
12.4. Selectivity Improvement 297
12.5. Calibration 300
12.6. Conclusion 303
Acknowledgment 304
References 304
Enzyme Based Sensors 308
Chapter 13. Application of electrochemical enzyme biosensors for food quality control 310
13.1. Introduction 310
13.2. Food Quality Control 310
13.3. Process Control Applications 343
13.4. Conclusions and Some Remarks from the Commercial Point of View 343
References 344
Chapter 14. Electrochemical biosensors for heavy metals based on enzyme inhibition 354
14.1. Introduction 354
14.2. Parameters Affecting the Enzyme Inhibition System 356
14.3. Analytical Characterization of Biosensors-Based Enzyme Inhibition 357
14.4. Conclusions 361
14.5. Future Perspectives 362
References 362
Chapter 15. Ultra-sensitive determination of pesticides via cholinesterase-based sensors for environmental analysis 366
15.1. Introduction 366
15.2. Application 369
15.3. Conclusions 381
References 382
Chapter 16. Amperometric enzyme sensors for the detection of cyanobacterial toxins in environmental samples 386
16.1. Introduction 386
16.2. Application 393
16.3. Conclusions 401
Acknowledgments 402
References 402
Chapter 17. Electrochemical biosensors based on vegetable tissues and crude extracts for environmental, food and pharmaceutical analysis 412
17.1. Introduction 412
17.2. Application 421
17.3. Conclusions 429
Acknowledgments 429
References 429
Affinity Biosensors 434
Chapter 18. Immunosensors for clinical and environmental applications based on electropolymerized films: analysis of cholera toxin and hepatitis C virus antibodies in water and serum 436
18.1. Introduction 436
18.2. Immobilization Techniques 439
18.3. Detection Techniques for Immobilized Analytes 447
18.4. Conclusion 454
References 454
Chapter 19. Genosensor technology for electrochemical sensing of nucleic acids by using different transducers 458
19.1. Introduction 458
19.2. Applications of Electrochemical Genosensor Technologies 459
19.3. Conclusion 463
Acknowledgments 464
References 464
Chapter 20. DNA-electrochemical biosensors for investigating DNA damage 468
20.1. Introduction 468
20.2. AFM Images of DNA-Electrochemical Biosensors 469
20.3. DNA-Electrochemical Biosensors for Detection of DNA Damage 472
20.4. DNA Damage Produced by Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) 473
20.5. Conclusion 487
References 488
Chapter 21. Electrochemical genosensing of food pathogens based on graphite-epoxy composite 494
21.1. Introduction 494
21.2. DNA Electrochemical Biosensors 499
21.3. Conclusions 514
Acknowledgments 516
References 516
Chapter 22. Electrochemical immunosensing of food residues by affinity biosensors and magneto sensors 522
22.1. Introduction 522
22.2. Electrochemical Biosensing of Food Residues Based on Universal Affinity Biocomposite Platforms 534
22.3. Electrochemical Biosensing of Food Residues Based on Magnetic Beads and M-GEC Electrochemical Transducer 539
22.4. Conclusions 542
Acknowledgments 544
References 544
Thick and Thin Film Biosensors 550
Chapter 23. Screen-printed electrochemical (bio)sensors in biomedical, environmental and industrial applications 552
23.1. Introduction 552
23.2. Biomedical 554
23.3. Environmental 576
23.4. Conclusions 596
Acknowledgments 597
References 597
Chapter 24. Mediated enzyme screen-printed electrode probes for clinical, environmental and food analysis 614
24.1. Introduction 614
24.2. Application 618
24.3. Conclusions 633
References 635
Chapter 25. Coupling of screen-printed electrodes and magnetic beads for rapid and sensitive immunodetection: polychlorinated biphenyls analysis in environmental samples 640
25.1. Introduction 640
25.2. Application 645
25.3. Conclusions 654
Acknowledgment 654
References 654
Chapter 26. Thick- and thin-film DNA sensors 658
26.1. Introduction 658
26.2. Applications 675
26.3. Conclusions 691
References 692
Chapter 27. Screen-printed enzyme-free electrochemical sensors for clinical and food analysis 698
27.1. Introduction and Application 698
27.2. Conclusion 717
Acknowledgment 719
References 719
Chapter 28. Analysis of meat, wool and milk for glucose, lactate and organo-phosphates at industrial point-of-need using electrochemical biosensors 722
28.1. Introduction 722
28.2. Electrochemical Biosensors for Milk, Meat and Wool 726
28.3. Testing Biosensors: Brief Comments on Experimental Design and Statistics 735
28.4. Conclusion 736
Disclaimer 737
References 737
Chapter 29. Rapid detection of organophosphates, Ochratoxin A, and Fusarium sp. in durum wheat via screen printed based electrochemical sensors 742
29.1. Introduction 742
29.2. Application 753
29.3. Conclusions 769
Acknowledgments 770
References 770
Novel Trends 774
Chapter 30. Potentiometric electronic tongues applied in ion multidetermination 776
30.1. Introduction 776
30.2. Application 791
30.3. Conclusions 802
Acknowledgments 804
References 804
Chapter 31. Electrochemical sensors for food authentication 810
31.1. Introduction 810
31.2. Application 816
31.3. Conclusions 824
References 824
Chapter 32. From microelectrodes to nanoelectrodes 826
32.1. Introduction 826
32.2. Application 836
32.3. Conclusions 848
References 849
Chapter 33. DNA/RNA aptamers: novel recognition structures in biosensing 856
33.1. Introduction 856
33.2. Applications of Aptamers in Biosensing 862
33.3. Conclusions 877
Acknowledgments 877
References 878
Chapter 34. Miniaturised devices: electrochemical capillary electrophoresis microchips for clinical application 882
34.1. Introduction 882
34.2. Applications 898
34.3. Conclusions 915
Acknowledgments 915
References 915
Chapter 35. Microchip electrophoresis/electrochemistry systems for analysis of nitroaromatic explosives 928
35.1. Introduction 928
35.2. Applications of Microfluidic Devices for Monitoring of Nitrated Organic Explosives 933
35.3. Conclusion 937
Abbreviations 937
Acknowledgments 938
References 938
Chapter 36. Microfluidic-based electrochemical platform for rapid immunological analysis in small volumes 940
36.1. Introduction 940
36.2. Polymer Microfluidic-Based ELISAS with Electrochemical Detection 945
36.3. IMMUSOFT鈩? A Program for Computer-Driven Microfluidic Assays 949
36.4. Performances Exemplified with the Immunoassay of Alkaline Phosphatase 956
36.5. Conclusion and Perspectives 959
References 959
Chapter 37. Scanning electrochemical microscopy in biosensor research 962
37.1. Introduction 962
37.2. Application of SECM in Chemical and Biochemical Sensor Research 970
37.3. Conclusion 987
Acknowledgments 988
References 989
Chapter 38. Gold nanoparticles in DNA and protein analysis 995
38.1. Introduction 995
38.2. DNA Analysis 998
38.3. Proteins Analysis 1005
38.4. Conclusions 1009
Acknowledgements 1010
References 1010
Subject Index 1013
Part 2: Procedures 1029
Potentiometric Sensors 1031
Procedure 1. Measurement of ionized Mg2+ in human blood by ion-selective electrode in automatic blood electrolyte analyzer 1033
1.1. Objectives 1033
1.2. Materials and Instruments 1033
1.3. Sensor Calibration 1035
1.4. Sensor Linearity 1035
1.5. Ionic Interferences on the Ionized Magnesium Result 1036
1.6. Performance of the Method 1037
1.7. Discussion 1038
Selected Literature 1039
Procedure 2. Determination of cesium in natural waters using polymer-based ion-selective electrodes 1041
2.1. Objectives 1041
2.2. Materials and Instruments 1041
2.3. Sensor Preparation and Sample Treatment 1042
2.4. Sensor Calibration and Sample Analysis 1044
2.5. Discussion 1044
Selected Literature 1048
Procedure 3. Enantioanalysis of S-captopril using an enantioselective, potentiometric membrane electrode 1049
3.1. Objectives 1049
3.2. Materials and Instruments 1049
3.3. Electrode Design 1050
3.4. Recommended Procedures: Direct Potentiometry 1050
3.5. Discussion 1051
Selected Literature 1051
Procedure 4. Determination of Ca(II) in wood pulp using a calcium-selective electrode with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) as ion-to-electron transducer 1053
4.1. Objectives 1053
4.2. Materials and Instruments 1053
4.3. Sensor Preparation 1054
4.4. Sensor Calibration 1055
4.5. Analysis of the Samples 1055
4.6. Discussion 1056
Selected Literature 1056
Procedure 5. Titration of trimeprazine base with tartaric acid in isopropanol solution using polyaniline as indicator electrode 1057
5.1. Objectives 1057
5.2. Materials and Instruments 1057
5.3. Sensor Preparation 1057
5.4. Sensor Calibration 1058
5.5. Analysis of the Samples 1059
5.6. Discussion 1060
Selected Literature 1061
Procedure 6. Determination of cadmium concentration and pH value in aqueous solutions by means of a handheld light-addressable potentiometric sensor (LAPS) device 1063
6.1. Objectives 1063
6.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1063
6.3. Laps Set-Up 1064
6.4. Determination of the Cadmium-Ion Concentration and the pH Value 1068
6.5. Discussion 1070
Selected Literature 1072
Voltammetric Sensors 1073
Procedure 7. Determination of lead and cadmium in tap water and soils by stripping analysis using mercury-free graphite-epoxy composite electrodes 1075
7.1. Objectives 1075
7.2. Materials and Instruments 1075
7.3. Construction of the Graphite\u2013Epoxy Composite Electrodes 1076
7.4. Stripping Analysis of Standard Solutions 1077
7.5. Analysis of Lead and Cadmium in Real Samples 1077
7.6. Discussion 1079
Selected Literature 1079
Further Reading 1080
Procedure 8. Direct electrochemical measurement on skin surface using microelectrodes 1081
8.1. Objectives 1081
8.2. Materials and Instruments 1081
8.3. Microelectrode Fabrication 1082
8.4. Microelectrode Characterization 1082
8.5. Skin Analysis 1084
8.6. Discussions 1084
Selected Literature 1086
Procedure 9. Direct electrochemical measurements in dermo-cosmetic creams 1087
9.1. Objectives 1087
9.2. Materials and Instruments 1087
9.3. Direct Electrochemical Measurements Performed in Dermo-Cosmetic Creams 1088
9.4. Validation of the Protocol Measurements 1090
Selected Literature 1094
Appendix A: Composition of Commercial Dermo-Cosmetic Creams 1094
Procedure 10. Biosensor for integral toxicity 1097
10.1. Objectives 1097
10.2. Materials and Apparatus 1097
10.3. Cell Immobilization 1097
10.4. Method 1098
10.5. Application and Discussion 1099
Selected Literature 1101
Procedure 11. Photosensor of environmental permanence 1103
11.1. Objectives 1103
11.2. Materials and Apparatus 1103
11.3. Method 1104
11.4. Application and Discussion 1105
Selected Literature 1105
Procedure 12. Biosensors for the determination of radicals 1107
12.1. Objectives 1107
12.2. Materials and Apparatus 1107
12.3. Biosensor Assembly 1107
12.4. Method 1108
12.5. Application and Discussion 1109
Selected Literature 1109
Procedure 13. The determination of metal ions using peptide-modified electrodes 1111
13.1. Objectives 1111
13.2. Materials and Instruments 1111
13.3. Construction of the Gold Disk Working Electrode 1112
13.4. Construction of the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1113
13.5. Analysis of Metal Ions Using the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1114
13.6. Interference of Metal Ions 1116
13.7. Analysis of Copper Samples Using the Peptide-Modified Electrode 1117
13.8. Discussion 1119
Selected Literature 1119
Continuous Monitoring 1121
Procedure 14. Deposition of boron-doped diamond films and their anodic treatment for the oxygen-terminated diamond sensor 1123
14.1. Objectives 1123
14.2. Materials and Instruments 1123
14.3. Preparation of Oxygen-Terminated Diamond Electrodes 1125
14.4. Electrochemical Properties of Oxygen-Terminated Diamond Electrodes 1126
14.5. Discussion 1126
Selected Literature 1129
Gas Sensors 1131
Procedure 15. Chemoresistor for determination of mercury vapor 1133
15.1. Objectives 1133
15.2. Materials and Instruments 1133
15.3. Sensor Preparation 1134
15.4. Calibration 1135
15.5. Sensor Properties 1136
Selected Literature 1137
Enzyme Electrodes 1139
Procedure 16. Determination of gluconic acid in honey samples using an integrated electrochemical biosensor based on self-assembled monolayer modified gold electrodes 1141
16.1. Objectives 1141
16.2. Materials and Instruments 1141
16.3. Construction of the Biosensor 1142
16.4. Gluconic Acid Determination in Standard Solutions by Batch Amperometry using the Biosensor 1142
16.5. Analysis of Gluconic Acid in Honey Samples 1142
16.6. Discussion 1143
Selected Literature 1145
Procedure 17. Preparation of Prussian blue-modified screen-printed electrodes via a chemical deposition for mass production of stable hydrogen peroxide sensors 1147
17.1. Objectives 1147
17.2. Materials and Instruments 1147
17.3. Sensor Preparation 1148
17.4. Discussion 1150
Selected Literature 1152
Procedure 18. Electrochemical sensor array for the evaluation of astringency in different tea samples 1153
18.1. Objectives 1153
18.2. Materials and Instruments 1153
18.3. Construction of the Array of Sensors 1154
18.4. Samples Preparation 1154
18.5. Amperometric Analysis 1155
18.6. Sensorial Panel Training and Analysis 1155
18.7. Multivariate Data Analysis 1156
18.8. Discussion 1156
18.9. Conclusion 1157
Selected Literature 1158
Procedure 19. Characterization of the PDO asiago cheese by an electronic nose 1159
19.1. Objectives 1159
19.2. Materials and Instruments 1159
19.3. Electronic Nose Apparatus 1159
19.4. Sample Preparation 1160
19.5. Analysis of Samples 1160
19.6. Sensory Analysis 1160
19.7. Discussion 1161
19.8. Conclusion 1166
Selected Literature 1166
Procedure 20. Determination of methyl mercury in fish tissue using electrochemical glucose oxidase biosensors based on invertase inhibition 1167
20.1. Objectives 1167
20.2. Materials and Instruments 1168
20.3. Glucose Oxidase Biosensor Preparation 1168
20.4. Biosensor Calibration and Methyl Mercury Determination in Standard Solutions 1169
20.5. Determination of Methyl Mercury in Real Fish Samples 1175
20.6. Discussion 1175
Selected Literature 1177
Procedure 21. Protein phosphatase inhibition-based biosensor for amperometric microcystin detection in cyanobacterial cells 1179
21.1. Objectives 1179
21.2. Materials and Instruments 1179
21.3. Construction of the PP2A Inhibition-Based Biosensor 1180
21.4. Biosensor Calibration with MC-LR Standard Solutions 1180
21.5. Analysis of Cyanobacteria Samples 1181
21.6. Discussion 1182
Acknowledgments 1183
Selected Literature 1184
Procedure 22. Voltammetric determination of paracetamol in pharmaceuticals using a zucchini (Cucurbita pepo) tissue biosensor 1185
22.1. Objectives 1185
22.2. Materials and Instruments 1185
22.3. Biosensor Preparation 1186
22.4. Analysis of Paracetamol 1188
22.5. Discussion 1188
Selected Literature 1189
Procedure 23. Determination of total phenols in wastewaters using a biosensor based on carbon paste modified with crude extract of jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia L.) 1191
23.1. Objectives 1191
23.2. Materials and Instruments 1191
23.3. Procedures 1192
23.4. Discussion 1193
Selected Literature 1196
Procedure 24. Construction of an enzyme-containing microelectrode array and use for detection of low levels of pesticides 1197
24.1. Objectives 1197
24.2. Materials and Instruments 1197
24.3. (BIO)Sensor Preparation 1198
24.4. (BIO)Sensor Calibration 1201
24.5. Discussion 1202
Selected Literature 1204
Affinity Sensors 1205
Procedure 25. PCB analysis using immunosensors based on magnetic beads and carbon screen-printed electrodes in marine sediment and soil samples 1207
25.1. Objectives 1207
25.2. Materials and Instruments 1207
25.3. Electrochemical Immunosensor using Magnetic Beads as Solid Phase and Carbon Screen-Printed Electrodes (Spces) as Transducers 1208
25.4. Analysis of PCB Mixtures 1209
25.5. PCB Analysis in Marine Sediment and Soil Extracts 1210
25.6. Discussion 1210
Selected Literature 1212
Procedure 26. Construction of amperometric immunosensors for the analysis of cholera antitoxin and comparison of the performances between three different enzyme markers 1213
26.1. Objectives 1213
26.2. Materials and Instruments 1213
26.3. Preparation of Amperometric Immunosensors 1216
26.4. Amperometric Transduction of the Immunoreaction 1216
26.5. Discussion 1221
Selected Literature 1222
Procedure 27. Electrochemical detection of calf thymus double-stranded DNA and single-stranded DNA by using a disposable graphite sensor 1223
27.1. Objectives 1223
27.2. Materials and Instruments 1223
27.3. Construction of Disposable Pencil Graphite Electrode (PGE) 1224
27.4. Voltammetric Detection of DNA by using PGE 1224
27.5. Electrochemical Detection of Calf Thymus Double-Stranded DNA and Single-Stranded DNA 1226
27.6. Discussion 1228
Acknowledgments 1229
Selected Literature 1229
Procedure 28. Atomic force microscopy characterization of a DNA electrochemical biosensor 1231
28.1. Objectives 1231
28.2. Materials and Instruments 1231
28.3. DNA Electrochemical Biosensors Preparation 1232
28.4. Atomic Force Microscopy Experimental Conditions 1232
28.5. Discussion 1233
Selected Literature 1233
Procedure 29. Electrochemical sensing of DNA damage by ROS and RNS produced by redox activation of quercetin, adriamycin and nitric oxide 1235
29.1. Objectives 1235
29.2. Materials and Instruments 1235
29.3. Construction of DNA-Biosensors 1236
29.4. Electrical Transduction of DNA Damage 1237
29.5. Acquisition and Presentation of Voltammetric Data 1237
29.6. Quercetin\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1237
29.7 Adriamycin\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1238
29.8 DETA/NO\u2013dsDNA Interaction 1238
29.9. Discussion 1238
Selected Literature 1239
Procedure 30. Electrochemical determination of Salmonella spp. based on GEC electrodes 1241
30.1. Objectives 1241
30.2. Materials and Instruments 1241
30.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1241
30.4. Construction of the GEC Electrode 1242
30.5. Amplification of the Salmonella Genome 1243
30.6. Electrochemical Determination of Salmonella spp. Based on GEC 1245
References 1247
Procedure 31. Rapid electrochemical verification of PCR amplification of Salmonella spp. based on m-GEC electrodes 1249
31.1. Objectives 1249
31.2. Materials and Instruments 1249
31.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1250
31.4. Construction of the m-Gec Electrode 1250
31.5. Amplification of the Salmonella Genome 1252
31.6. Rapid Electrochemical Verification of PCR Amplification of Salmonella SPP 1252
References 1254
Procedure 32. In situ DNA amplification of Salmonella spp. with magnetic primers for the real-time electrochemical detection based on m-GEC electrodes 1255
32.1. Objectives 1255
32.2. Materials and Instruments 1255
32.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1256
32.4. Construction of the m-GEC Electrode 1256
32.5. In situ Salmonella Genome Amplification with Magnetic Bead Primers 1256
32.6. Rapid Electrochemical Verification of in situ PCR Amplification of Salmonella spp. with Magnetic Bead Primers 1257
References 1259
Procedure 33. Electrochemical determination of atrazine in orange juice and bottled water samples based on Protein A biocomposite electrodes 1261
33.1. Objectives 1261
33.2. Materials and Instruments 1261
33.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1262
33.4. Construction of the ProtA-Geb Electrode 1262
33.5. Purification of the Anti-Triazine Antibodies 1262
33.6. Electrochemical Determination of Atrazine in Orange Juice 1263
References 1264
Procedure 34. Electrochemical determination of sulfonamide antibiotics in milk samples using a class-selective antibody 1265
34.1. Objectives 1265
34.2. Materials and Instruments 1265
34.3. Chemicals and Biochemicals 1266
34.4. Construction of the m-GEC Electrode 1266
34.5. Purification of the Anti-Sulfonamide Class-Specific Antibodies 1266
34.6. Antibody Binding to the Magnetic Beads 1267
34.7. Electrochemical Determination of Sulfonamide in Milk 1267
References 1269
Thick and Thin Film Biosensors 1271
Procedure 35. Preparation of electrochemical screen-printed immunosensors for progesterone and their application in milk analysis 1273
35.1. Objectives 1273
35.2. Chemicals and Reagents 1273
35.3. Preparation of Immunosensors 1274
35.4. Determination of Progesterone in Milk 1275
35.5. Discussion 1277
Selected Literature 1278
Procedure 36. Genosensor on gold thin-films with enzymatic electrochemical detection of a SARS virus sequence 1279
36.1. Objectives 1279
36.2. Materials and Instruments 1279
36.3. Genosensor Construction 1281
36.4. Hybridisation Assay and Recording of the Analytical Signal 1282
36.5. Discussion 1282
Selected Literature 1284
Procedure 37. Genosensor on streptavidin-modified thick-film carbon electrodes for TNFRSF21 PCR products 1285
37.1. Objectives 1285
37.2. Materials and Instruments 1285
37.3. Genosensor Construction 1287
37.4. PCR Samples Preparation 1287
37.5. Hybridisation Assay and Recording of the Analytical Signal 1289
37.6. Discussion 1289
Selected Literature 1292
Procedure 38. Electrochemical immunosensor for diagnosis of the forest-spring encephalitis 1293
38.1. Objectives 1293
38.2. Materials and Instruments 1293
38.3. Immunosensor Preparation 1294
38.4. Biosensor Calibration 1295
38.5. Sample Analysis 1295
38.6. Discussion 1297
Selected Literature 1297
Procedure 39. Non-enzymatic urea sensor 1299
39.1. Objectives 1299
39.2. Materials and Instruments 1299
39.3. Sensor Preparation 1300
39.4. Sensor Calibration 1300
39.5. Sample Analysis 1301
39.6. Discussion 1303
Procedure 40. Potentiometric determination of antioxidant activity of food and herbal extracts 1305
40.1. Objectives 1305
40.2. Materials and Instruments 1305
40.3. Sensor Preparation 1305
40.4. Sensor Calibration (Once A Day) 1306
40.5. Sample Analysis 1307
40.6. Discussion 1308
Selected Literature 1311
Procedure 41. Convenient and rapid detection of cholinesterase inhibition by pesticides extracted from sheep wool 1313
41.1. Objectives 1313
41.2. Materials and Instruments 1313
41.3. Construction of SPCES 1314
41.4. Extraction of Pesticides from Wool 1318
41.5. Electrochemical Detection of Pesticides in wool Extracts 1319
41.6. Discussion 1320
Selected Literature 1321
Procedure 42. Detection of dichlorvos in durum wheat 1323
42.1. Objectives 1323
42.2. Materials and Instruments 1323
42.3. Biosensor Preparation 1324
42.4. Biosensor Calibration 1324
42.5. Analysis of the Samples 1325
42.6. Discussion 1326
Selected Literature 1326
Procedure 43. Detection of pirimiphos-methyl in durum wheat 1327
43.1. Objectives 1327
43.2. Materials and Instruments 1327
43.3. Biosensor Preparation 1327
43.4. Biosensor Calibration 1328
43.5. Analysis of the Samples 1329
43.6. Discussion 1330
Selected Literature 1330
Procedure 44. Detection of Fusarium sp. via electrochemical sensing 1331
44.1. Objectives 1331
44.2. Materials and Instruments 1331
44.3. Genosensor Preparation 1332
44.4. Electrochemical Detection 1332
44.5. Analysis of the PCR Products 1333
44.6. Discussion 1335
Selected Literature 1335
Novel Trends 1337
Procedure 45. An electronic tongue made of coated wire potentiometric sensors for the determination of alkaline ions: Use of artificial neural networks for its response model 1339
45.1. Objectives 1339
45.2. Materials and Instruments 1339
45.3. Preparation of the Three Coated-Wire Sensors 1340
45.4. Sensor Calibration 1341
45.5. Obtained Results 1351
45.6. Discussion 1352
Selected Literature 1357
Procedure 46. Determination of gold by anodic stripping voltammetry in tap water 1359
46.1. Objectives 1359
46.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1359
46.3. Construction and Pretreatment of CFME 1359
46.4. Stripping Analysis 1360
46.4. Calibration 1360
46.6. Discussion 1360
Selected Literature 1362
Procedure 47. Detection of the aptamer\u2013protein interaction using electrochemical indicators 1363
47.1. Objectives 1363
47.2. Materials and Instruments 1363
47.3. Controlling the Steps of Sensor Preparation 1365
47.4. Calibration of the Sensor in Standard Solution 1365
47.5. Determination of Dissociation Constant 1367
47.6. Sensor Regeneration 1368
Acknowledgments 1369
Selected Literature 1370
Procedure 48. Separation and amperometric detection of hydrogen peroxide and l-\u2014ascorbic acid using capillary electrophoresis microchips 1371
48.1. Objectives 1371
48.2. Materials and Instrumentation 1371
48.3. Design of the Amperometric Detector 1373
48.4. Electrophoresis Procedure 1373
48.5. Microchip Performance 1374
48.6. Discussion 1376
Selected Literature 1377
Procedure 49. Analysis of nitroaromatic explosives with microchip electrophoresis using a graphite\u2013epoxy composite detector 1379
49.1. Objectives 1379
49.2. Material and Instruments 1379
49.3. Construction 1380
49.4. Electrophoresis Procedure 1381
49.5. Safety Considerations 1382
Selected Literature 1383
Procedure 50. Determination of sub-pM concentration of human interleukin-\u20141B by microchip ELISA with electrochemical detection 1385
50.1. Objectives 1385
50.2. Materials and Instruments 1385
50.3. Immunoassay Protocol 1386
50.4. Data Treatment 1390
50.5. Discussion 1390
Procedure 51. Kinetic analysis of titanium nitride thin films by scanning electrochemical microscopy 1391
51.1. Objectives 1391
51.2. Materials and Instruments 1391
51.3. Finding the Distance offset of the Measurements 1392
51.4. Approach Curve to Titanium Nitride thin Film 1394
51.5. Discussion 1396
Procedure 52. Analysis of the activity of b&!beta;-\u2014galactosidase from E. Coli by scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) 1399
52.1. Objectives 1399
52.2. Materials and Instruments 1399
52.3. Modification of Magnetic Microbeads 1400
52.4. Formation of Microbead Microspots 1400
52.5. Analysis of the Working Solution 1401
52.6. Discussion 1404
Procedure 53. DNA analysis by using gold nanoparticle as labels 1409
53.1. Objectives 1409
53.2. Materials and Instruments 1409
53.3. Construction of the M-GECE 1410
53.4. Electrochemical Detection of the Hybridization of DNA Strand Related to BRCA1 Breast Cancer Gene using a Two Strands Assay Format 1412
53.5. Electrochemical Detection 1412
53.6. Electrochemical Detection of the Hybridization of DNA Strand Related to Cystic Fibrosis Gene, using a Sandwich Assay Format 1413
53.7. Discussion 1414
Selected Literature 1416
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