Comprehending behavioral statistics / 3rd ed.

Introduction p. 1
Inductive Statements p. 2
Statistical Reasoning p. 3
Rational Decision Making p. 4
A Classic Example: Pygmalion in the Classroom p. 4
Samples from Populations p. 8
Probability p. 9
A Note to the Student p. 11
Exercises for Chapter 1 p. 12
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 1A: Introduction to Statistics
Lectlet 1B: Basic Concepts
Resource 1A: Probability Is a Measure of Uncertainty
Algebra: Review
QuizMaster 1A
Variables and Their Measurement p. 14
Levels of Measurement p. 15
Continuous and Discrete Variables p. 17
Real Limits p. 17
Significant Figures p. 18
Rounding p. 18
Summation p. 20
Notation p. 20
Computations p. 20
Connections p. 22
Cumulative Review p. 22
Computers p. 22
Homework Tips p. 24
Exercises for Chapter 2 p. 25
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 2A: Variables and Their Measurement
Resource 2X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
Algebra: Summation
QuizMaster 2A
Frequency Distributions p. 28
Distributions as Tables p. 31
Distributions as Graphs p. 34
Histogram p. 34
Frequency Polygon p. 36
Eyeball-estimation p. 38
The Shape of Distributions p. 41
Describing Distributions p. 41
The Normal Distribution p. 42
Eyeball-calibration p. 44
Bar Graphs of Nominal and Ordinal Variables p. 47
Connections p. 48
Cumulative Review p. 48
Computers p. 48
Homework Tips p. 49
Exercises for Chapter 3 p. 50
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 3A: Summary Distributions as Tables
Lectlet 3B: Summary Distributions as Graphs
Resource 3A: Stem and Leaf Displays
Resource 3X: Additional Exercises
QuizMaster 3A
Measures of Central Tendency p. 54
Mode p. 56
Eyeball-estimating the Mode p. 57
Determining the Mode p. 58
Median p. 58
Eyeball-estimating the Median p. 59
Computing the Median p. 59
Mean p. 60
Eyeball-estimating the Mean p. 60
Computing the Sample Mean p. 64
Comparing the Mode, Median, and Mean p. 65
Computing the Population Mean p. 68
Connections p. 69
Cumulative Review p. 69
Journals p. 69
Computers p. 69
Homework Tips p. 70
Exercises for Chapter 4 p. 70
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 4A: Measures of Central Tendency
Lectlet 4B: Computing and Eyeball-estimating the Mean
Resource 4A: The Linear Method for Computing the Median
Resource 4B: Computing the Mean from a Frequency Distribution
Resource 4X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT meanest: Eyeball-estimating the Mean from a Histogram
ESTAT meannum: Eyeball-estimating the Mean from a Table
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 4A
Measures of Variation p. 76
Range p. 79
Standard Deviation p. 80
Mean Squared Deviation Formulas p. 81
Inflection Points of Normal Distributions p. 83
Eyeball-estimation p. 85
Computing the Standard Deviation p. 89
Variance p. 92
Eyeball-calibration for Distributions p. 93
Connections p. 94
Cumulative Review p. 94
Journals p. 95
Computers p. 95
Homework Tips p. 96
Exercises for Chapter 5 p. 96
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 5A: Measures of Variation
Lectlet 5B: Computing and Eyeball-estimating the Standard Deviation
Resource 5A: The Mean Deviation and the Average Absolute Deviation
Resource 5B: Computational Formulas for the Standard Deviation and Variance
Resource 5C: Computing the Standard Deviation from a Frequency Distribution
Resource 5X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT sdest: Eyeball-estimating the Standard Deviation from a Histogram
ESTAT sdnum: Eyeball-estimating the Standard Deviation from a Table
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 5A
Using Frequency Distributions p. 102
Points in Distributions p. 103
Percentiles and Percentile Rank p. 104
Standard Scores (z Scores) p. 104
Areas Under Distributions p. 105
Using Areas Under Distributions p. 108
Areas Under Normal Distributions p. 111
Eyeball-estimation p. 112
Eyeball-calibration p. 114
Calculating Areas p. 117
Other Standardized Distributions Based on z Scores p. 121
Relative Frequencies of Real-World Normal Variables p. 125
Percentiles and Percentile Rank in Normal Distributions p. 128
Connections p. 129
Cumulative Review p. 129
Computers p. 130
Homework Tips p. 132
Exercises for Chapter 6 p. 132
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 6A: Areas Under Distributions
Lectlet 6B: Areas Under Normal Distributions
Resource 6A: Interpolation
Resource 6B: Equation of the Normal Distribution
Resource 6X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT normal: Eyeball-estimating Areas Under the Normal Distribution
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 6A
Samples and the Sampling Distribution of the Means p. 136
Random Samples p. 138
Simple Random Sampling p. 139
Samples from Populations p. 142
The Sampling Distribution of the Means p. 144
The Central Limit Theorem p. 146
Factors That Affect the Magnitude of [sigma subscript x]: n and [sigma] p. 149
Using the Sampling Distribution of the Means p. 149
Connections p. 154
Cumulative Review p. 154
Computers p. 154
Homework Tips p. 155
Exercises for Chapter 7 p. 155
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 7A: Samples from Populations and the Distribution of Means
Lectlet 7B: The Central Limit Theorem
Lectlet 7C: The Standard Error of the Mean
Resource 7X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT mdist: Tutorial-The Distribution of Means and How n Affects It
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 7A
Parameter Estimation p. 159
Point-estimation p. 161
Distribution of Sample Means p. 161
Confidence Intervals p. 163
When [sigma] Is Known p. 164
Changing the Level of Confidence p. 168
When [sigma] Is Unknown p. 170
Opinion Polls p. 175
Four Factors That Affect the Width of a Confidence Interval p. 176
Connections p. 177
Cumulative Review p. 177
Journals p. 177
Computers p. 177
Homework Tips p. 178
Exercises for Chapter 8 p. 179
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 8A: Confidence Intervals
Lectlet 8B: Computing Confidence Intervals
Lectlet 8C: Confidence Intervals II
Resource 8A: Unbiased Estimators and the Denominator of the Standard Deviation
Resource 8B: Degrees of Freedom in the Computation of a Standard Deviation or Variance
Resource 8C: Opinion Polls: Using the Confidence Interval for a Proportion
Resource 8X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT confide: Eyeball-estimating Confidence Intervals
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 8A
Evaluating Hypotheses p. 184
Descriptive Versus Inferential Statistics p. 186
Descriptive Statistics p. 186
Inferential Statistics p. 186
Evaluating Hypotheses p. 188
Null and Alternative Hypotheses p. 189
Directional (One-tailed) and Nondirectional (Two-tailed) Hypotheses p. 190
Type I and Type II Errors p. 191
Level of Significance ([alpha]) p. 192
Statistical Power p. 194
The Courtroom Analogy p. 195
Practical Significance p. 196
The Procedure for Evaluating Hypotheses p. 197
Connections p. 199
Cumulative Review p. 199
Computers p. 200
Journals p. 200
Homework Tips p. 200
Exercises for Chapter 9 p. 200
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 9A: Inferential Statistics
Lectlet 9B: The Procedure for Evaluating Hypotheses
Resource 9A: Why Statistical Significance Testing Alone Is Not Enough
QuizMaster 9A
Inferences About Means of Single Samples p. 203
Evaluating Hypotheses About Means p. 204
When [sigma] Is Known p. 205
A Directional (One-tailed) Example p. 211
Practical Significance: Effect Size p. 214
When [sigma] Is Unknown p. 216
The Relationship Between Hypothesis Testing and Confidence Intervals p. 221
Statistical Significance is Not Necessarily Practical Significance p. 222
One-sample + Test Eyeball-calibration p. 223
Connections p. 224
Cumulative Review p. 224
Journals p. 227
Computers p. 228
Homework Tips p. 229
Exercises for Chapter 10 p. 229
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 10A: Inferences About Means of Single Samples: Illustrating the Null Hypothesis
Lectlet 10B: Inferences About Means of Single Samples: Completing the Evaluation
Lectlet 10C: Inferences About Means of Single Samples: When the Test is Directional or [sigma] is Unknown
Resource 10A: Eyeball-estimating One-sample + Tests
Resource 10X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT ttest 1: Eyeball-estimating One-sample + Tests
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 10A
Inferences About Means of Two Independent Samples p. 234
Hypotheses with Two Independent Samples p. 236
Dependent and Independent Variables p. 236
The Null Hypothesis p. 238
Experimental Outcomes p. 239
The Test Statistic p. 240
Standard Error of the Difference Between Two Means p. 242
Pooled Variance p. 243
Interpreting the Standard Error of the Difference Between Two Means p. 244
Evaluating Hypotheses About Means of Two Independent Samples p. 245
Procedure p. 246
A Directional (One-tailed) Example p. 249
Practical Significance Versus Statistical Significance Revisited p. 253
Two-sample + Test Eyeball-calibration p. 254
Connections p. 258
Cumulative Review p. 258
Journals p. 258
Computers p. 260
Homework Tips p. 261
Exercises for Chapter 11 p. 263
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 11A: Hypothesis Evaluation with Two Independent Samples: The Test Statistic
Lectlet 11B: Hypothesis Evaluation with Two Independent Samples: The Standard Error of the Difference Between Two Means
Lectlet 11C: Hypothesis Evaluation with Two Independent Samples: Completing the Analysis
Resource 11A: Eyeball-estimating Two-independent-samples + Tests
Resource 11X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT diffm: Tutorial-The Distribution of Differences Between Means
ESTA ttest2: Eyeball-estimating Two-independent-samples + Tests
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 11A
Inferences About Means of Two Dependent Samples p. 269
Dependent-sample Tests p. 270
Evaluating Hypotheses About Means of Two Dependent Samples p. 272
An Example p. 273
Null Hypothesis p. 274
Test Statistic p. 275
Evaluating the Hypothesis p. 276
Comparing Dependent-and Independent-sample + Tests p. 280
Dependent-sample + Test Eyeball-calibration p. 282
Connections p. 285
Cumulative Review p. 285
Journals p. 285
Computers p. 286
Homework Tips p. 287
Exercises for Chapter 12 p. 288
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 12A: Inferences About Two Dependent Samples
Resource 12A: Eyeball-estimating Dependent-sample + Tests
Resource 12X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 12A
Statistical Power p. 294
Statistical Power p. 295
An Example p. 297
Illustrating Power p. 298
Factors That Increase Power p. 301
Increasing the Sample Size Increases Power p. 301
Increasing the Raw Effect Size Increases Power p. 303
Decreasing [sigma] Increases Power p. 304
Increasing [alpha] Increases Power p. 304
Changing from a Nondirectional to a Directional Test Increases Power p. 305
Using Power to Determine Sample Size p. 306
An Example p. 309
Connections p. 312
Cumulative Review p. 312
Journals p. 312
Homework Tips p. 312
Exercises for Chapter 13 p. 312
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 13A: Statistical Power
Lectlet 13B: Consequences of Statistical Power
Resource 13X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT power: Eyeball-estimating Power from n, Effect Size, and Standard Deviation
QuizMaster 13A
Inferences About Two or More Means: Analysis of Variance p. 317
Why Multiple + Tests Are Not Appropriate p. 319
Hypotheses with Three or More Samples p. 320
Null Hypothesis p. 321
Alternative Hypothesis p. 321
Logic of Analysis of Variance p. 322
MS[subscript B]: Between-group oint-estimate of [sigma superscript 2] p. 324
MS[subscript W]: Within-group Point-estimate of [sigma superscript 2] p. 326
F Ratio p. 327
ANOVA is Nondirectional p. 329
Partitioning the Sum of Squares p. 330
Review of the Procedure p. 336
Another Example p. 340
ANOVA Eyeball-calibration p. 343
Number of Subjects Required for Adequate Power p. 348
Connections p. 350
Cumulative Review p. 350
Journals p. 351
Computers p. 351
Homework Tips p. 352
Exercises for Chapter 14 p. 353
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 14A: Hypotheses with Three or More Groups
Lectlet 14B: Logic of the Analysis of Variance
Lectlet 14C: Computing the Analysis of Variance
Lectlet 14D: Interpreting the Analysis of Variance
Resource 14A: Computational Formulas for ANOVA
Resource 14B: Eyeball-estimating the Analysis of Variance
Resource 14X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT anova: Eyeball-estimating the Analysis of Variance
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 14A
Post Hoc Tests, A Priori Tests, Repeated-Measures ANOVA, and Two-way ANOVA p. 360
Interpreting ANOVA: Post Hoc Tests p. 362
Instead of ANOVA: A Priori Tests p. 365
A Priori Tests When There Are Two Groups p. 365
Comparisons p. 366
Repeated-Measures Analysis of Variance p. 367
Two-way Analysis of Variance p. 370
Displaying the Outcome of a Two-way Design p. 370
Main Effects p. 372
Interaction p. 374
Kinds of Interaction p. 375
Null Hypothesis for Interaction p. 377
Interpreting Two-way ANOVA p. 377
Connections p. 378
Cumulative Review p. 378
Journals p. 379
Computers p. 380
Homework Tips p. 381
Exercises for Chapter 15 p. 381
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 15A: Post Hoc Tests and A Priori Tests
Lectlet 15B: Repeated-measures Analysis of Variance
Lectlet 15C: Two-way Analysis of Variance
Resource 15A: Comprehending and Computing Post Hoc Tests
Resource 15B: Comprehending and Computing A Priori Tests
Resource 15C: Comprehending and Computing Repeated-measures ANOVA
Resource 15D: Comprehending and Computing Two-way ANOVA
Resource 15X: Additional Exercises
QuizMaster 15A
Measures of the Relationship Between Two Variables: Correlation p. 387
Correlation Coefficient p. 388
Scatter Diagrams p. 390
Values of r p. 391
Pearson's r p. 393
z Score Formulas p. 394
How It Works p. 395
Factors That Affect the Size of r p. 399
Correlation Does Not Imply Causation p. 400
Testing Hypotheses About r p. 401
Power p. 402
Spearman's r[subscript S] p. 403
Ranking p. 405
Testing Hypotheses About r[subscript s] p. 406
Connections p. 406
Cumulative Review p. 406
Journals p. 406
Computers p. 408
Homework Tips p. 410
Exercises for Chapter 16 p. 410
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 16A: Correlation
Lectlet 16B: Computing the Correlation Coefficient
Resource 16A: Computational Formulas for the Pearson Correlation Coefficient
Resource 16B: The Significance Test for r is Derived from the Test Statistic +
Resource 16X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT scatter: Eyeball-estimating the Correlation Coefficient from a Scatterplot
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 16A
Prediction: Linear Regression p. 418
Regression Lines p. 420
Notation p. 421
The Equation p. 422
Eyeball-estimating the Constants p. 424
Computing the Constants p. 429
Interpreting the Constants p. 430
Regression Line in Standard Form p. 431
Regression to the Mean p. 432
The Best (Least Squares) Regression Line p. 434
Error of Prediction p. 434
The Best Line p. 435
Standard Error of Estimate p. 436
Coefficient of Determination p. 438
Predicted Distribution p. 439
Interpreting Correlation and Regression p. 443
Connections p. 444
Cumulative Review p. 444
Journals p. 444
Computers p. 446
Homework Tips p. 446
Exercises for Chapter 17 p. 448
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 17A: Linear Regression
Lectlet 17B: Computing the Regression Equation
Lectlet 17C: The Standard Error of Estimate
Resource 17A: Computational Formula for the Regression Line Slope
Resource 17B: What Causes Regression to the Mean?
Resource 17C: Partitioning the Regression Sum of Squares
Resource 17D: A Small Correlation Can Have Dramatic Impact
Resource 17X: Additional Exercises
ESTAT regtry: Eyeball-estimating the Regression Line
ESTAT corest: Prediction and Regression to the Mean
ESTAT datagen: Statistical Computational Package and Data Generator
QuizMaster 17A
Some Nonparametric Statistical Tests p. 455
Testing with a Nonnormal Distribution p. 457
Nonparametric Statistical Tests p. 458
Tests for Data Measured at the Nominal Level p. 458
One Sample: The X[superscript 2] Goodness of Fit Test p. 459
Two Independent Samples: The X[superscript 2] Test of Independence p. 465
Two Dependent Samples: The McNemar Test for Significance of Change p. 469
Tests for Data Measured at the Ordinal Level p. 471
Two Independent Samples: The Mann-Whitney U Test p. 471
Two Dependent Samples: The Wilcoxon Matched-pairs Signed-rank Test p. 474
k Independent Samples: The Kruskal-Wallis H Test p. 475
Choosing Between Parametric and Nonparametric Tests p. 477
Connections p. 477
Cumulative Review p. 477
Journals p. 479
Computers p. 479
Homework Tips p. 481
Exercises for Chapter 18 p. 481
On the Personal Trainer CD
Lectlet 18A: Nonparametric Statistics: Chi-square
Lectlet 18B: Nonparametric Statistics Based on Order
Resource 18X: Additional Exercises