简介
This text provides a comprehensive introduction to educational research. Each step in the research process is described and discussed in detail, and thorough coverage of the most widely-used research methodologies in education is provided. New to this edition is an expanded focus on qualitative methods. New Parts V and VI provide an expanded introduction to qualitative methods, and take a close look at different qualitative methodologies. Also new is an enhanced chapter on Action Research. Examples of key concepts and ideas in all chapters highlight the texts practicability, and step-by-step analyses of real research studies, and. End-of-chapter Problem Sheets, comprehensive coverage of data analysis, and how to prepare research proposals and reports make the text appropriate both for courses that focus on doing research and for those that stress how to read and understand research. To keep students engaged, the authors' writing is simple and direct. Clarifying examples, summarizing charts, tables and diagrams, numerous illustrations of key concepts and ideas, and a friendly two-color design enhance the content. This is the only copiously illustrated educational research text available. Packaged with the text are an Interactive Student CD-Rom and Student Workbook that provide practice opportunity and resources.
目录
Preface p. xxiii
Introduction to Research p. 1
The Nature of Research p. 2
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 3
Some Examples of Educational Concerns p. 3
Why Research Is of Value p. 4
Ways of Knowing p. 4
Types of Research p. 7
General Research Types p. 14
Critical Analysis of Research p. 16
A Brief Overview of the Research Process p. 19
Main Points p. 21
Key Terms p. 22
For Discussion p. 23
Notes p. 23
p. 24
p. 24
The Basics of Educational Research p. 25
The Research Problem p. 26
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 27
What Is a Research Problem? p. 27
Research Questions p. 27
Characteristics of Good Research Questions p. 29
Research Questions Often Investigate Relationships p. 34
Main Points p. 35
Key Terms p. 35
For Discussion p. 35
p. 37
p. 37
Variables and Hypotheses p. 38
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 39
The Importance of Studying Relationships p. 39
Variables p. 40
Hypotheses p. 46
Main Points p. 50
Key Terms p. 50
For Discussion p. 51
p. 52
p. 52
Ethics and Research p. 53
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 54
Some Examples of Unethical Practice p. 54
A Statement of Ethical Principles p. 54
Protecting Participants from Harm p. 56
Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data p. 56
Should Subjects Be Deceived? p. 57
Three Examples Involving Ethical Concerns p. 58
Research with Children p. 60
Regulation of Research p. 61
Main Points p. 63
For Discussion p. 64
Notes p. 64
p. 65
p. 65
Review of the Literature p. 66
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 67
The Value of a Literature Review p. 67
Types of Sources p. 67
Steps Involved in a Literature Search p. 68
Doing a Computer Search p. 76
Writing the Literature Review Report p. 86
Main Points p. 87
Key Terms p. 88
For Discussion p. 88
Notes p. 89
p. 90
p. 90
Sampling p. 91
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 92
What Is a Sample? p. 92
Random Sampling Methods p. 95
Nonrandom Sampling Methods p. 98
A Review of Sampling Methods p. 102
Sample Size p. 103
External Validity: Generalizing from a Sample p. 104
Main Points p. 107
Key Terms p. 107
For Discussion p. 109
p. 110
p. 110
Instrumentation p. 111
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 112
What Are Data? p. 112
Means of Classifying Data-Collection Instruments p. 118
Examples of Data-Collection Instruments p. 118
Types of Scores p. 137
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Instruments p. 138
Measurement Scales p. 139
Preparing Data for Analysis p. 142
Main Points p. 144
Key Terms p. 145
For Discussion p. 146
Notes p. 147
p. 148
p. 148
Validity and Reliability p. 149
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 150
The Importance of Valid Instruments p. 150
Validity p. 150
Reliability p. 157
Main Points p. 165
Key Terms p. 165
For Discussion p. 166
Notes p. 166
p. 167
p. 167
Internal Validity p. 168
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 169
What Is Internal Validity? p. 169
Threats to Internal Validity p. 170
How Can a Researcher Minimize These Threats to Internal Validity? p. 182
Main Points p. 183
Key Terms p. 184
For Discussion p. 184
Note p. 185
p. 186
p. 186
Data Analysis p. 187
Descriptive Statistics p. 188
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 189
Statistics Versus Parameters p. 189
Two Fundamental Types of Numerical Data p. 189
Techniques for Summarizing Quantitative Data p. 191
Techniques for Summarizing Categorical Data p. 210
Main Points p. 215
Key Terms p. 217
For Discussion p. 217
p. 218
p. 218
Inferential Statistics p. 219
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 220
What Are Inferential Statistics? p. 220
The Logic of Inferential Statistics p. 221
Hypothesis Testing p. 228
Practical Versus Statistical Significance p. 229
Inference Techniques p. 231
Main Points p. 242
Key Terms p. 243
For Discussion p. 244
p. 245
p. 245
Statistics in Perspective p. 246
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 247
Approaches to Research p. 247
Comparing Groups: Quantitative Data p. 248
Relating Variables within a Group: Quantitative Data p. 252
Comparing Groups: Categorical Data p. 257
Relating Variables within a Group: Categorical Data p. 259
A Recap of Recommendations p. 259
Main Points p. 261
Key Terms p. 262
For Discussion p. 262
p. 263
p. 263
Quantitative Research Methodologies p. 265
Experimental Research p. 266
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 267
The Uniqueness of Experimental Research p. 267
Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research p. 268
Control of Extraneous Variables p. 270
Group Designs in Experimental Research p. 270
Control of Threats to Internal Validity: A Summary p. 281
Evaluating the Likelihood of a Threat to Internal Validity in Experimental Studies p. 284
Control of Experimental Treatments p. 286
An Example of Experimental Research p. 288
Research Report p. 289
Analysis of the Study p. 298
Main Points p. 300
Key Terms p. 302
For Discussion p. 302
Notes p. 303
p. 304
p. 304
Single-Subject Research p. 305
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 306
Essential Characteristics of Single-Subject Research p. 306
Single-Subject Designs p. 306
Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Subject Research p. 312
An Example of Single-Subject Research p. 318
Research Report p. 319
Analysis of the Study p. 330
Main Points p. 332
Key Terms p. 333
For Discussion p. 333
Correlational Research p. 334
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 335
The Nature of Correlational Research p. 335
Purposes of Correlational Research p. 336
Basic Steps in Correlational Research p. 342
What Do Correlation Coefficients Tell Us? p. 344
Threats to Internal Validity in Correlational Research p. 344
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Correlational Studies p. 348
An Example of Correlational Research p. 350
Research Report p. 351
Analysis of the Study p. 364
Main Points p. 366
Key Terms p. 367
For Discussion p. 368
Notes p. 368
Causal-Comparative Research p. 369
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 370
What Is Causal-Comparative Research? p. 370
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Research p. 373
Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative Research p. 374
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative Studies p. 376
Data Analysis p. 377
Associations Between Categorical Variables p. 379
An Example of Causal-Comparative Research p. 380
Research Report p. 380
Analysis of the Study p. 391
Main Points p. 393
For Discussion p. 394
Note p. 395
Survey Research p. 396
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 397
What Is a Survey? p. 397
Why Are Surveys Conducted? p. 398
Types of Surveys p. 398
Survey Research and Correlational Research p. 399
Steps in Survey Research p. 399
Nonresponse p. 409
Problems in the Instrumentation Process in Survey Research p. 411
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Survey Research p. 411
Data Analysis in Survey Research p. 412
An Example of Survey Research p. 412
Research Report p. 412
Analysis of the Study p. 421
Main Points p. 423
Key Terms p. 424
For Discussion p. 424
Notes p. 425
Introduction to Qualitative Research p. 427
The Nature of Qualitative Research p. 428
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 429
What Is Qualitative Research? p. 429
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research p. 430
Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Qualitative as Opposed to Quantitative Research p. 431
Postmodernism p. 432
Steps in Qualitative Research p. 433
Approaches to Qualitative Research p. 435
Generalization in Qualitative Research p. 440
Internal Validity in Qualitative Research p. 441
Ethics and Qualitative Research p. 441
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered p. 442
Main Points p. 444
Key Terms p. 445
For Discussion p. 445
Notes p. 446
Observation and Interviewing p. 448
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 449
Observation p. 449
Interviewing p. 455
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research p. 462
An Example of Qualitative Research p. 463
Research Report p. 464
Analysis of the Study p. 476
Main Points p. 478
Key Terms p. 480
For Discussion p. 480
Notes p. 481
Content Analysis p. 482
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 483
What Is Content Analysis? p. 483
Some Applications p. 484
Categorization in Content Analysis p. 485
Steps Involved in Content Analysis p. 485
An Illustration of Content Analysis p. 491
Using the Computer in Content Analysis p. 492
Advantages of Content Analysis p. 494
Disadvantages of Content Analysis p. 494
An Example of a Content Analysis Study p. 495
Research Report p. 495
Analysis of the Study p. 505
Main Points p. 506
Key Terms p. 508
For Discussion p. 508
Notes p. 508
Qualitative Research Methodologies p. 509
Ethnographic Research p. 510
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 511
What Is Ethnographic Research? p. 511
Ethnographic Concepts p. 513
Sampling in Ethnographic Research p. 515
Do Ethnographic Researchers Use Hypotheses? p. 515
Data Collection in Ethnographic Research p. 516
Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research p. 520
Roger Harker and His Fifth-Grade Classroom p. 522
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research p. 523
An Example of Ethnographic Research p. 524
Research Report p. 525
Analysis of the Study p. 539
Main Points p. 540
Key Terms p. 542
For Discussion p. 542
Notes p. 542
Historical Research p. 544
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 545
What Is Historical Research? p. 545
Steps Involved in Historical Research p. 546
Data Analysis in Historical Research p. 551
Generalization in Historical Research p. 551
Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research p. 552
An Example of Historical Research p. 553
Research Report p. 554
Analysis of the Study p. 560
Main Points p. 562
Key Terms p. 563
For Discussion p. 563
Notes p. 564
Research by Practitioners p. 565
Action Research p. 566
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 567
What Is Action Research? p. 567
Types of Action Research p. 568
Steps in Action Research p. 570
Similarities and Differences Between Action Research and Formal Quantitative and Qualitative Research p. 573
The Advantages of Action Research p. 573
Some Hypothetical Examples of Practical Action Research p. 575
An Example of Action Research p. 580
A Published Example of Action Research p. 581
Research Report p. 581
Analysis of the Study p. 588
Main Points p. 590
Key Terms p. 591
For Discussion p. 597
Notes p. 591
Writing Research Proposals and Reports p. 593
Preparing Research Proposals and Reports p. 594
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 595
The Research Proposal p. 595
The Major Sections of a Research Proposal or Report p. 595
Sections Unique to Research Reports p. 602
A Sample Research Proposal p. 606
Main Points p. 618
For Review p. 678
Key Terms p. 679
For Discussion p. 679
Notes p. 679
Appendixes p. A-1
Portion of a Table of Random Numbers p. A-2
Selected Values from a Normal Curve Table p. A-3
Chi-Square Distribution p. A-4
Using SPSS p. A-5
Glossary p. G-1
Index p. I-1
Introduction to Research p. 1
The Nature of Research p. 2
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 3
Some Examples of Educational Concerns p. 3
Why Research Is of Value p. 4
Ways of Knowing p. 4
Types of Research p. 7
General Research Types p. 14
Critical Analysis of Research p. 16
A Brief Overview of the Research Process p. 19
Main Points p. 21
Key Terms p. 22
For Discussion p. 23
Notes p. 23
p. 24
p. 24
The Basics of Educational Research p. 25
The Research Problem p. 26
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 27
What Is a Research Problem? p. 27
Research Questions p. 27
Characteristics of Good Research Questions p. 29
Research Questions Often Investigate Relationships p. 34
Main Points p. 35
Key Terms p. 35
For Discussion p. 35
p. 37
p. 37
Variables and Hypotheses p. 38
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 39
The Importance of Studying Relationships p. 39
Variables p. 40
Hypotheses p. 46
Main Points p. 50
Key Terms p. 50
For Discussion p. 51
p. 52
p. 52
Ethics and Research p. 53
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 54
Some Examples of Unethical Practice p. 54
A Statement of Ethical Principles p. 54
Protecting Participants from Harm p. 56
Ensuring Confidentiality of Research Data p. 56
Should Subjects Be Deceived? p. 57
Three Examples Involving Ethical Concerns p. 58
Research with Children p. 60
Regulation of Research p. 61
Main Points p. 63
For Discussion p. 64
Notes p. 64
p. 65
p. 65
Review of the Literature p. 66
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 67
The Value of a Literature Review p. 67
Types of Sources p. 67
Steps Involved in a Literature Search p. 68
Doing a Computer Search p. 76
Writing the Literature Review Report p. 86
Main Points p. 87
Key Terms p. 88
For Discussion p. 88
Notes p. 89
p. 90
p. 90
Sampling p. 91
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 92
What Is a Sample? p. 92
Random Sampling Methods p. 95
Nonrandom Sampling Methods p. 98
A Review of Sampling Methods p. 102
Sample Size p. 103
External Validity: Generalizing from a Sample p. 104
Main Points p. 107
Key Terms p. 107
For Discussion p. 109
p. 110
p. 110
Instrumentation p. 111
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 112
What Are Data? p. 112
Means of Classifying Data-Collection Instruments p. 118
Examples of Data-Collection Instruments p. 118
Types of Scores p. 137
Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Instruments p. 138
Measurement Scales p. 139
Preparing Data for Analysis p. 142
Main Points p. 144
Key Terms p. 145
For Discussion p. 146
Notes p. 147
p. 148
p. 148
Validity and Reliability p. 149
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 150
The Importance of Valid Instruments p. 150
Validity p. 150
Reliability p. 157
Main Points p. 165
Key Terms p. 165
For Discussion p. 166
Notes p. 166
p. 167
p. 167
Internal Validity p. 168
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 169
What Is Internal Validity? p. 169
Threats to Internal Validity p. 170
How Can a Researcher Minimize These Threats to Internal Validity? p. 182
Main Points p. 183
Key Terms p. 184
For Discussion p. 184
Note p. 185
p. 186
p. 186
Data Analysis p. 187
Descriptive Statistics p. 188
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 189
Statistics Versus Parameters p. 189
Two Fundamental Types of Numerical Data p. 189
Techniques for Summarizing Quantitative Data p. 191
Techniques for Summarizing Categorical Data p. 210
Main Points p. 215
Key Terms p. 217
For Discussion p. 217
p. 218
p. 218
Inferential Statistics p. 219
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 220
What Are Inferential Statistics? p. 220
The Logic of Inferential Statistics p. 221
Hypothesis Testing p. 228
Practical Versus Statistical Significance p. 229
Inference Techniques p. 231
Main Points p. 242
Key Terms p. 243
For Discussion p. 244
p. 245
p. 245
Statistics in Perspective p. 246
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 247
Approaches to Research p. 247
Comparing Groups: Quantitative Data p. 248
Relating Variables within a Group: Quantitative Data p. 252
Comparing Groups: Categorical Data p. 257
Relating Variables within a Group: Categorical Data p. 259
A Recap of Recommendations p. 259
Main Points p. 261
Key Terms p. 262
For Discussion p. 262
p. 263
p. 263
Quantitative Research Methodologies p. 265
Experimental Research p. 266
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 267
The Uniqueness of Experimental Research p. 267
Essential Characteristics of Experimental Research p. 268
Control of Extraneous Variables p. 270
Group Designs in Experimental Research p. 270
Control of Threats to Internal Validity: A Summary p. 281
Evaluating the Likelihood of a Threat to Internal Validity in Experimental Studies p. 284
Control of Experimental Treatments p. 286
An Example of Experimental Research p. 288
Research Report p. 289
Analysis of the Study p. 298
Main Points p. 300
Key Terms p. 302
For Discussion p. 302
Notes p. 303
p. 304
p. 304
Single-Subject Research p. 305
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 306
Essential Characteristics of Single-Subject Research p. 306
Single-Subject Designs p. 306
Threats to Internal Validity in Single-Subject Research p. 312
An Example of Single-Subject Research p. 318
Research Report p. 319
Analysis of the Study p. 330
Main Points p. 332
Key Terms p. 333
For Discussion p. 333
Correlational Research p. 334
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 335
The Nature of Correlational Research p. 335
Purposes of Correlational Research p. 336
Basic Steps in Correlational Research p. 342
What Do Correlation Coefficients Tell Us? p. 344
Threats to Internal Validity in Correlational Research p. 344
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Correlational Studies p. 348
An Example of Correlational Research p. 350
Research Report p. 351
Analysis of the Study p. 364
Main Points p. 366
Key Terms p. 367
For Discussion p. 368
Notes p. 368
Causal-Comparative Research p. 369
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 370
What Is Causal-Comparative Research? p. 370
Steps Involved in Causal-Comparative Research p. 373
Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative Research p. 374
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Causal-Comparative Studies p. 376
Data Analysis p. 377
Associations Between Categorical Variables p. 379
An Example of Causal-Comparative Research p. 380
Research Report p. 380
Analysis of the Study p. 391
Main Points p. 393
For Discussion p. 394
Note p. 395
Survey Research p. 396
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 397
What Is a Survey? p. 397
Why Are Surveys Conducted? p. 398
Types of Surveys p. 398
Survey Research and Correlational Research p. 399
Steps in Survey Research p. 399
Nonresponse p. 409
Problems in the Instrumentation Process in Survey Research p. 411
Evaluating Threats to Internal Validity in Survey Research p. 411
Data Analysis in Survey Research p. 412
An Example of Survey Research p. 412
Research Report p. 412
Analysis of the Study p. 421
Main Points p. 423
Key Terms p. 424
For Discussion p. 424
Notes p. 425
Introduction to Qualitative Research p. 427
The Nature of Qualitative Research p. 428
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 429
What Is Qualitative Research? p. 429
General Characteristics of Qualitative Research p. 430
Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Qualitative as Opposed to Quantitative Research p. 431
Postmodernism p. 432
Steps in Qualitative Research p. 433
Approaches to Qualitative Research p. 435
Generalization in Qualitative Research p. 440
Internal Validity in Qualitative Research p. 441
Ethics and Qualitative Research p. 441
Qualitative and Quantitative Research Reconsidered p. 442
Main Points p. 444
Key Terms p. 445
For Discussion p. 445
Notes p. 446
Observation and Interviewing p. 448
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 449
Observation p. 449
Interviewing p. 455
Validity and Reliability in Qualitative Research p. 462
An Example of Qualitative Research p. 463
Research Report p. 464
Analysis of the Study p. 476
Main Points p. 478
Key Terms p. 480
For Discussion p. 480
Notes p. 481
Content Analysis p. 482
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 483
What Is Content Analysis? p. 483
Some Applications p. 484
Categorization in Content Analysis p. 485
Steps Involved in Content Analysis p. 485
An Illustration of Content Analysis p. 491
Using the Computer in Content Analysis p. 492
Advantages of Content Analysis p. 494
Disadvantages of Content Analysis p. 494
An Example of a Content Analysis Study p. 495
Research Report p. 495
Analysis of the Study p. 505
Main Points p. 506
Key Terms p. 508
For Discussion p. 508
Notes p. 508
Qualitative Research Methodologies p. 509
Ethnographic Research p. 510
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 511
What Is Ethnographic Research? p. 511
Ethnographic Concepts p. 513
Sampling in Ethnographic Research p. 515
Do Ethnographic Researchers Use Hypotheses? p. 515
Data Collection in Ethnographic Research p. 516
Data Analysis in Ethnographic Research p. 520
Roger Harker and His Fifth-Grade Classroom p. 522
Advantages and Disadvantages of Ethnographic Research p. 523
An Example of Ethnographic Research p. 524
Research Report p. 525
Analysis of the Study p. 539
Main Points p. 540
Key Terms p. 542
For Discussion p. 542
Notes p. 542
Historical Research p. 544
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 545
What Is Historical Research? p. 545
Steps Involved in Historical Research p. 546
Data Analysis in Historical Research p. 551
Generalization in Historical Research p. 551
Advantages and Disadvantages of Historical Research p. 552
An Example of Historical Research p. 553
Research Report p. 554
Analysis of the Study p. 560
Main Points p. 562
Key Terms p. 563
For Discussion p. 563
Notes p. 564
Research by Practitioners p. 565
Action Research p. 566
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 567
What Is Action Research? p. 567
Types of Action Research p. 568
Steps in Action Research p. 570
Similarities and Differences Between Action Research and Formal Quantitative and Qualitative Research p. 573
The Advantages of Action Research p. 573
Some Hypothetical Examples of Practical Action Research p. 575
An Example of Action Research p. 580
A Published Example of Action Research p. 581
Research Report p. 581
Analysis of the Study p. 588
Main Points p. 590
Key Terms p. 591
For Discussion p. 597
Notes p. 591
Writing Research Proposals and Reports p. 593
Preparing Research Proposals and Reports p. 594
Interactive and Applied Learning p. 595
The Research Proposal p. 595
The Major Sections of a Research Proposal or Report p. 595
Sections Unique to Research Reports p. 602
A Sample Research Proposal p. 606
Main Points p. 618
For Review p. 678
Key Terms p. 679
For Discussion p. 679
Notes p. 679
Appendixes p. A-1
Portion of a Table of Random Numbers p. A-2
Selected Values from a Normal Curve Table p. A-3
Chi-Square Distribution p. A-4
Using SPSS p. A-5
Glossary p. G-1
Index p. I-1
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