Table Of Contents:
Preface x
PART 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY 1(72)

Crime, Criminal Justice, and Scientific Inquiry 2(27)

Introduction: Why Study Research Methods? 3(1)

What Is This Book About? 3(1)

Two Realities 3(1)

Box: Home Detention 4(2)

The Role of Science 6(1)

Personal Human Inquiry 6(2)

Tradition 7(1)

Authority 7(1)

Box: Arrest and Domestic Violence 8(1)

Errors in Personal Human Inquiry 8(3)

Inaccurate Observation 8(1)

Overgeneralization 9(1)

Selective Observation 10(1)

Illogical Reasoning 10(1)

Ideology and Politics 10(1)

To Err Is Human 10(1)

The Foundations of Social Science 11(7)

Theory, Not Philosophy or Belief 11(2)

Regularities 13(1)

What About Exceptions? 13(1)

Aggregates, Not Individuals 13(1)

A Variable Language 14(1)

Variables and Attributes 15(1)

Variables and Relationships 16(2)

Purposes of Research 18(2)

Exploration 18(1)

Description 18(1)

Explanation 18(2)

Application 20(1)

Differing Avenues for Inquiry 20(4)

Idiographic and Nomothetic Explanations 20(2)

Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 22(1)

Quantitative and Qualitative Data 22(2)

Why Did Crime Go Down (or Up)? 24(1)

Ethics and Criminal Justice Research 24(2)

Knowing Through Experience: Summing Up and Looking Ahead 26(1)

Main Points 26(1)

Key Terms 27(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 27(1)

Additional Readings 27(2)

Theory and Criminal Justice Research 29(22)

Introduction 30(1)

The Creation of Social Science Theory 30(8)

The Traditional Model of Science 30(4)

Two Logical Systems 34(4)

Box: Grounded Theory and Community Prosecution 38(4)

Terms Used in Theory Construction 39(3)

Theory in Criminal Justice 42(4)

Law Breaking 43(2)

Policy Responses 45(1)

Theory, Research, and Public Policy 45(1)

New York's Secret? Purposive Action 46(3)

Ecological Theories of Crime and Crime Prevention Policy 48(1)

Main Points 49(1)

Key Terms 49(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 49(1)

Additional Readings 50(1)

Causation and Validity 51(22)

Introduction 52(1)

Determinism and Social Science 52(2)

Causation in the Natural Sciences 52(1)

Finding Causes in Social Science 52(1)

Reasons Have Reasons 53(1)

Determinism in Perspective 54(1)

Idiographic and Nomothetic Models of Explanation 54(2)

Criteria for Causality 56(2)

Necessary and Sufficient Causes 56(2)

Box: Correlation and Causality 58(2)

Molar, Not Micromedial, Causal Statements 58(2)

Errors of Reasoning 60(1)

Validity and Causal Inference 60(4)

Statistical Conclusion Validity 61(1)

Internal Validity 62(1)

Construct Validity 62(1)

External Validity 63(1)

Causation and Declining Crime 64(3)

Validity and Causal Inference Summarized 65(1)

Does Drug Use Cause Crime? 66(1)

Linking Measurement and Association 67(3)

The Traditional Deductive Model 67(2)

The Interchangeability of Indexes 69(1)

Main Points 70(1)

Key Terms 71(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 71(1)

Additional Readings 71(2)
PART 2 STRUCTURING CRIMINAL JUSTICE INQUIRY 73(136)

General Issues in Research Design 74(26)

Introduction 75(1)

Units of Analysis 75(6)

Individuals 76(1)

Groups 76(1)

Organizations 77(1)

Social Artifacts 78(1)

Units of Analysis in Review 78(1)

The Ecological Fallacy 79(1)

Reductionism 80(1)

The Time Dimension 81(1)

Cross-Sectional Studies 81(1)

Box: Units of Analysis in the National Youth Gang Survey 82(6)

Longitudinal Studies 82(2)

Approximating Longitudinal Studies 84(1)

Retrospective Studies 85(3)

The Time Dimension Summarized 88(1)

How to Design a Research Project 88(7)

The Research Process 88(2)

Getting Started 90(1)

Conceptualization 91(1)

Choice of Research Method 91(1)

Operationalization 92(1)

Population and Sampling 92(1)

Observations 92(1)

Data Processing 93(1)

Analysis 93(1)

Application 93(1)

Review 93(2)

The Research Proposal 95(1)

Elements of a Research Proposal 95(1)

Units and Time in New York 96(1)

Answers to Units of Analysis Exercise 97(1)

Main Points 97(1)

Key Terms 98(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 98(1)

Additional Readings 98(2)

Concepts, Operationalization, and Measurement 100(27)

Introduction 101(1)

Conceptions and Concepts 101(5)

Conceptualization 102(1)

Indicators and Dimensions 103(1)

Confusion Over Definitions and Reality 104(1)

Creating Conceptual Order 104(2)

Operationalization Choices 106(2)

Measurement as ``Scoring'' 107(1)

Box: What Is Recidivism? 108(2)

Exhaustive and Exclusive Measurement 108(2)

Box: Jail Stay 110(4)

Levels of Measurement 110(2)

Implications of Levels of Measurement 112(2)

What's a Police Activity? 114(1)

Criteria for Measurement Quality 114(7)

Reliability 116(2)

Validity 118(3)

Composite Measures 121(3)

Typologies 121(1)

An Index of Disorder 122(2)

Measurement Summary 124(1)

Main Points 124(1)

Key Terms 125(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 125(1)

Additional Readings 125(2)

Measuring Crime 127(30)

Introduction 128(1)

General Issues in Measuring Crime 128(2)

What Offenses? 128(1)

What Units of Analysis? 129(1)

What Purpose? 129(1)

Box: Units of Analysis and Measuring Crime 130(1)

Crimes Known to Police 131(6)

Uniform Crime Reports 132(1)

UCR and Criteria for Measurement Quality 133(1)

Incident-Based Police Records 134(1)

National Incident-Based Reporting System 134(2)

NIBRS and Criteria for Measurement Quality 136(1)

Measuring Crime Through Victim Surveys 137(6)

National Crime Victimization Survey 137(2)

NCVS Redesign 139(2)

Community Victimization Surveys 141(1)

Comparing Victim Surveys and Crimes Known to Police 142(1)

Surveys of Offending 143(4)

National Household Survey on Drug Abuse 144(1)

Monitoring the Future 145(1)

Validity and Reliability of Self-Report Measures 146(1)

Self-Report Surveys Summarized 146(1)

Drug Surveillance Systems 147(3)

Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring 147(1)

Drug Abuse Warning Network 148(1)

Pulse Check 149(1)

Measuring Crime for Specific Purposes 150(2)

Crime Surveys 150(1)

Incident-Based Crime Records 151(1)

Observing Crime 151(1)

Measuring Crime in New York 152(2)

Measuring Crime: Summary 154(1)

Main Points 155(1)

Key Terms 155(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 155(1)

Additional Readings 156(1)

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs 157(30)

Introduction 158(1)

The Classical Experiment 158(5)

Independent and Dependent Variables 159(1)

Pretesting and Posttesting 159(1)

Experimental and Control Groups 160(1)

Double-Blind Experiment 161(1)

Selecting Subjects 162(1)

Randomization 163(1)

Experiments and Causal Inference 163(8)

Experiments and Threats to Validity 164(1)

Threats to Internal Validity 164(3)

Ruling Out Threats to Internal Validity 167(2)

Generalizability 169(1)

Threats to Construct Validity 169(1)

Threats to External Validity 170(1)

Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity 171(1)

Variations in the Classical Experimental Design 171(2)

Quasi-Experimental Designs 173(10)

Nonequivalent-Groups Designs 173(3)

Cohort Designs 176(1)

Time-Series Designs 177(3)

Variations in Time-Series Designs 180(1)

Gun Control, Homicide, and Suicide 181(2)

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs Summarized 183(1)

A Variety of Designs in New York 184(1)

Main Points 184(1)

Key Terms 184(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 184(2)

Additional Readings 186(1)

Ethics and Criminal Justice Research 187(22)

Introduction 188(1)

Ethical Issues in Criminal Justice Research 188(9)

No Harm to Participants 189(2)

Voluntary Participation 191(1)

Anonymity and Confidentiality 192(1)

Deceiving Subjects 193(1)

Analysis and Reporting 193(1)

Legal Liability 194(1)

Special Problems 194(3)

Promoting Compliance with Ethical Principles 197(3)

Institutional Review Boards 197(3)

Box: Ethics and Juvenile Gang Members 200(1)

Institutional Review Board Requirements and Researcher Rights 200(1)

Two Ethical Controversies 201(1)

Trouble in the Tearoom 201(1)

Confidentiality in Police Research 202(4)

Simulating a Prison 204(2)

Discussion Examples 206(1)

Main Points 207(1)

Key Terms 207(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 207(1)

Additional Readings 208(1)
PART 3 MODES OF OBSERVATION 209(134)

Overview of Data Collection and Sampling 210(35)

Introduction 211(1)

Three Sources of Data 211(2)

Asking Questions 211(1)

Direct Observations 212(1)

Examining Written Records 212(1)

Using Multiple Data Sources 213(1)

General Issues in Data Collection 213(1)

Using Three Types of Data in New York City 214(2)

Measurement Validity and Reliability 214(1)

Obtrusive and Unobtrusive Measures 215(1)

Box: Multiple Measures in Home Detention 216(2)

Be Careful, But Be Creative 218(1)

The Logic of Probability Sampling 218(3)

Conscious and Unconscious Sampling Bias 218(2)

Representativeness and Probability of Selection 220(1)

Probability Sampling Theory and Sampling Distributions 221(8)

The Sampling Distribution of Ten Cases 222(1)

From Sampling Distribution to Parameter Estimate 223(3)

Estimating Sampling Error 226(2)

Confidence Levels and Confidence Intervals 228(1)

Random Sampling and Probability Theory Summed Up 228(1)

Populations and Sampling Frames 229(1)

Types of Sampling Designs 230(4)

Simple Random Sampling 230(1)

Systematic Sampling 230(1)

Stratified Sampling 230(2)

Disproportionate Stratified Sampling 232(1)

Multistage Cluster Sampling 232(2)

Multistage Cluster Sampling with Stratification 234(1)

Illustration: Two National Crime Surveys 234(4)

National Crime Victimization Survey 236(1)

British Crime Survey 236(2)

Probability Sampling in Review 238(1)

Nonprobability Sampling 238(2)

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling 238(1)

Quota Sampling 239(1)

Sampling New York City Police Precincts 240(2)

Reliance on Available Subjects 240(1)

Snowball Sampling 241(1)

Nonprobability Sampling in Review 242(1)

Main Points 242(2)

Key Terms 244(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 244(1)

Additional Readings 244(1)

Survey Research and Other Ways of Asking Questions 245(32)

Introduction 246(1)

Topics Appropriate to Survey Research 246(3)

Counting Crime 246(1)

Self-Reports 247(1)

Perceptions and Attitudes 247(1)

Policy Proposals 247(1)

Targeted Victim Surveys 248(1)

Other Evaluation Uses 248(1)

General-Purpose Crime Surveys 249(1)

Guidelines for Asking Questions 249(5)

Open-Ended and Closed-Ended Questions 249(1)

Questions and Statements 250(1)

Make Items Clear 250(1)

Short Items Are Best 250(1)

Avoid Negative Items 250(1)

Avoid Biased Items and Terms 251(1)

Tips on Self-Report Items 251(2)

Computer-Assisted Interviews 253(1)

Questionnaire Construction 254(4)

General Questionnaire Format 254(1)

Contingency Questions 254(2)

Matrix Questions 256(1)

Ordering Questions in a Questionnaire 257(1)

Self-Administered Questionnaires 258(3)

Mail Distribution and Return 259(1)

Warning Mailings, Cover Letters 259(1)

Monitoring Returns 260(1)

Follow-Up Mailings 260(1)

Acceptable Response Rates 261(1)

In-Person Interview Surveys 261(3)

The Role of the Interviewer 261(1)

General Rules for Interviewing 262(1)

Coordination and Control 263(1)

Telephone Surveys 264(2)

Computer-Assisted Telephone Interviewing 265(1)

Comparison of the Three Methods 266(2)

Strengths and Weakenesses of Survey Research 268(2)

Other Ways of Asking Questions 270(2)

Specialized Interviewing 270(1)

Focus Groups 271(1)

Should You Do It Yourself? 272(2)

Asking Questions in New York 274(1)

Main Points 275(1)

Key Terms 275(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 275(1)

Additional Readings 276(1)

Field Research 277(34)

Introduction 278(1)

Topics Appropriate to Field Research 279(1)

The Various Roles of the Observer 280(2)

Asking Questions 282(2)

Preparing for the Field 284(10)

Access to Formal Organizations 284(3)

Access to Subcultures 287(1)

Selecting Cases for Observation 288(2)

Sampling in Field Research 290(1)

Recording Observations 291(2)

Field Notes 293(1)

Structured Observations 293(1)

Linking Field Observations and Other Data 294(2)

Illustrations of Field Research 296(2)

Shoplifting 297(1)

Box: Conducting a Safety Audit 298(6)

How Many People Wear Seat Belts? 300(1)

``Driving While Black'' 301(1)

Bars and Violence 302(2)

Field Research in New York 304(2)

Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Research 306(3)

Validity 306(1)

Reliability 307(1)

Generalizability 308(1)

Main Points 309(1)

Key Terms 310(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 310(1)

Additional Readings 310(1)

Agency Records, Content Analysis, and Secondary Data 311(32)

Introduction 312(1)

Topics Appropriate for Agency Records 312(2)

Types of Agency Records 314(8)

Published Statistics 314(2)

Nonpublic Agency Records 316(4)

New Data Collected by Agency Staff 320(2)

Units of Analysis and Sampling 322(2)

Units of Analysis 322(1)

Sampling 323(1)

Reliability and Validity 324(2)

Sources of Reliability and Validity Problems 325(1)

Box: How Many Parole Violators Were There Last Month? 326(3)

Content Analysis 329(6)

Units of Analysis and Sampling in Content Analysis 329(3)

Coding in Content Analysis 332(1)

Illustrations of Content Analysis 333(2)

Secondary Analysis 335(2)

Sources of Secondary Data 336(1)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Data 337(1)

Main Points 337(1)

NYPD Agency Records 338(2)

Key Terms 340(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 340(1)

Additional Readings 340(3)
PART 4 Application and Analysis 343(77)

Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis 344(35)

Introduction 345(1)

Topics Appropriate for Evaluation Research and Policy Analysis 345(4)

The Policy Process 346(1)

Linking the Process of Evaluation 347(2)

Getting Started 349(7)

Evaluability Assessment 350(1)

Problem Formulation 351(2)

Measurement 353(3)

Designs for Program Evaluation 356(11)

Randomized Evaluation Designs 356(3)

Home Detention: Two Randomized Studies 359(2)

Quasi-Experimental Designs 361(3)

Scientific Realism and Evaluation 364(2)

Other Types of Evaluation Studies 366(1)

Policy Analysis 367(4)

Modeling Prison Populations 367(3)

Other Applications of Policy Analysis 370(1)

Political Context of Applied Research 371(1)

Applied Research in the NYPD 372(3)

Evaluation and Stakeholders 373(1)

Politics and Objectivity 374(1)

Box: When Politics Accommodates Facts 375(1)

Main Points 376(1)

Key Terms 377(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 377(1)

Additional Readings 377(2)

Interpreting Data 379(41)

Introduction 380(1)

Univariate Description 380(8)

Distributions 380(1)

Central Tendency 381(2)

Dispersion 383(2)

Comparing Measures of Dispersion and Central Tendency 385(2)

Computing Rates 387(1)

Detail Versus Manageability 388(1)

Describing Two or More Variables 388(4)

Bivariate Analysis 388(3)

Multivariate Analysis 391(1)

Box: Murder on the Job 392(10)

Measures of Association 396(6)

Analyzing NYPD Crime Data 402(2)

Inferential Statistics 404(13)

Univariate Inferences 404(1)

Tests of Statistical Significance 405(1)

The Logic of Statistical Significance 405(5)

Visualizing Statistical Significance 410(2)

Chi Square 412(2)

Cautions in Interpreting Statistical Significance 414(1)

Visualizing Discernible Differences 415(2)

Main Points 417(1)

Key Terms 418(1)

Review Questions and Exercises 418(1)

Additional Readings 418(2)
Glossary 420(9)
Bibliography 429(13)
Name Index 442(2)
Subject Index 444