Integrated assessment of health and sustainability of agroecosystems /

Contents
Foreword...................................................................................................................vii
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
References..................................................................................................................xi
Acknowledgments................................................................................................... xiii
The Authors..............................................................................................................xv
Introduction.............................................................................................................xvii
Chapter 1 General Introduction.............................................................................1
1.1 Introduction......................................................................................................1
1.2 Global Context.................................................................................................2
1.3 Sustainability...................................................................................................4
1.3.1 Definitions.............................................................................................4
1.3.2 Assessment and Implementation...........................................................5
1.4 Agroecosystem Health.....................................................................................5
1.4.1 Systems Theory....................................................................................7
1.4.2 The Health Concept..............................................................................8
1.4.3 Assessment and Implementation......................................................... 10
1.4.4 Indicators............................................................................................ 11
1.4.5 Selection of Indicators........................................................................ 12
1.5 The Kiambu Agroecosystem......................................................................... 13
1.5.1 External Environment......................................................................... 13
1.5.2 Internal Environment.......................................................................... 14
1.6 Potential Indicators........................................................................................ 15
1.7 Justification.................................................................................................... 16
References................................................................................................................. 17
Chapter 2 Design and Implementation of an Adaptive, Integrated
Approach to Health and Sustainability in a Smallholder-
Dominated Agroecosystem.................................................................25
2.1 Introduction....................................................................................................25
2.2 Research Strategy and Methods.....................................................................27
2.2.1 Secondary Data and Holarchical Scales.............................................29
2.2.2 Sampling Study Sites..........................................................................30
2.2.3 Systemic Description and Action Planning........................................ 31
2.2.4 Indicators............................................................................................ 32
2.2.4.1 Community-Driven Indicators............................................. 32
2.2.4.2 Selection of Research-Based Indicators............................... 32
2.2.5 Monitoring, Evaluation, and Assessment........................................... 33
2.2.5.1 Community-Based Assessment............................................ 33
2.2.5.2 Research-Based Assessments.............................................. 33
72773.indb 19 2/28/08 9:55:06 AM
xx Integrated Assessment of Health and Sustainability of Agroecosystems
2.2.6 Implementation of Interventions......................................................... 33
2.2.6.1 Community Training............................................................ 33
2.2.6.2 Community-Based Development Interventions...................34
2.3 Results............................................................................................................34
2.3.1 Holarchical Scales..............................................................................34
2.3.2 Study Sites...........................................................................................37
2.3.3 Systemic Description..........................................................................37
2.3.3.1 Demographic Features.........................................................38
2.3.3.2 Geoclimatic Features...........................................................39
2.3.3.3 Resource Use and Distribution............................................39
2.3.3.4 Agriculture...........................................................................44
2.3.3.5 Agroecosystem Health Goals...............................................46
2.3.4 Health and Sustainability Assessment................................................48
2.3.5 Implementation of Interventions.........................................................50
2.4 Discussion......................................................................................................50
2.4.1 Holarchical Scale................................................................................50
2.4.2 Systemic Description.......................................................................... 51
2.4.3 The Agroecosystem Health Approach................................................ 51
2.4.4 Health and Sustainability Assessment................................................ 53
References................................................................................................................. 53
Chapter 3 Community Participation and the Integration of Agroecosystem
Health and Sustainability Concerns into Practical Decision
Making................................................................................................ 57
3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 57
3.2 Process and Methods.....................................................................................60
3.2.1 Community Identities.........................................................................60
3.2.2 Initial Contact with Communities in the Study Sites......................... 61
3.2.3 Initial Village Participatory Workshops............................................. 61
3.2.4.1 Participatory Techniques......................................................63
3.2.4.2 Participatory Mapping.........................................................63
3.2.4.3 Institutional Mapping...........................................................64
3.2.4.4 Historical Background.........................................................65
3.2.4.5 Time Lines...........................................................................65
3.2.4.6 Trend Lines..........................................................................65
3.2.4.7 Transect Walks.....................................................................66
3.2.4.8 Semistructured Interviews...................................................66
3.2.4.9 Seasonal Calendars..............................................................66
3.2.4.10 Daily Activity Charts........................................................... 67
3.2.4.11 Focus Group Discussions..................................................... 67
3.2.4.12 Presentations and Analysis.................................................. 67
3.2.4.13 Wealth Ranking...................................................................68
3.2.4.14 Health Analysis....................................................................68
3.2.4.15 Problem Identification and Ranking....................................68
3.2.4.16 Problem Analysis.................................................................69
72773.indb 20 2/28/08 9:55:06 AM
Contents xxi
3.2.4.17 Preference Ranking..............................................................69
3.2.4.18 Action Planning...................................................................69
3.2.5 Follow-up............................................................................................69
3.2.5.1 Creating Cognitive Maps.....................................................70
3.2.5.2 Developing Community-Based Indicators...........................70
3.2.5.3 Monitoring, Evaluation, Planning, and Assessments...........70
3.3 Results............................................................................................................70
3.3.1 Community Identities......................................................................... 71
3.3.1.1 Participatory Mapping......................................................... 71
3.3.1.2 Institutional Mapping........................................................... 71
3.3.1.3 Historical Background and Time Lines............................... 71
3.3.2 Profiles and Trends.............................................................................72
3.3.2.1 Trend Lines..........................................................................72
3.3.2.2 Transect Walks and Semistructured Interviews.................. 76
3.3.2.3 Wealth and Well-Being........................................................ 76
3.3.2.4 Health Analysis....................................................................80
3.3.3 Problem Analysis and Action Planning.............................................. 81
3.3.3.1 Problem Identification, Ranking, and Analyses................... 81
3.3.3.2 Preference Ranking and Action Planning............................82
3.3.4 Follow-Up...........................................................................................82
3.3.4.1 Collective Action..................................................................82
3.3.4.2 Reflection and Replanning...................................................84
3.4 Discussion......................................................................................................84
3.4.1 Community Identities and Collective Action.....................................87
3.4.2 Community Participation....................................................................87
3.4.3 Systemic Descriptions.........................................................................88
3.4.4 Problem Analyses and Action Plans...................................................89
3.4.5 Monitoring and Evaluation.................................................................89
References.................................................................................................................89
Chapter 4 Use of Systems Theory, Directed Graphs, and Pulse Process
Models in an Adaptive Approach to Agroecosystem Health and
Sustainability.......................................................................................93
4.1 Introduction....................................................................................................93
4.2 Process and Methods.....................................................................................95
4.2.1 Participatory Cognitive Mapping.......................................................96
4.2.2 Geometric Analyses............................................................................97
4.2.3 Pulse Process Models.........................................................................98
4.2.4 Application of System Theory Tools in Villages.............................. 100
4.3 Results.......................................................................................................... 100
4.3.1 Githima............................................................................................. 101
4.3.2 Gitangu............................................................................................. 106
4.3.3 Kiawamagira..................................................................................... 111
4.3.4 Mahindi............................................................................................. 112
72773.indb 21 2/28/08 9:55:07 AM
xxii Integrated Assessment of Health and Sustainability of Agroecosystems
4.3.5 Gikabu............................................................................................... 113
4.3.6 Thiririka............................................................................................ 117
4.4 Discussion.................................................................................................... 122
4.4.1 Construction of Cognitive Maps....................................................... 122
4.4.2 Use of Signed Digraphs.................................................................... 122
4.4.3 Geometric Analyses.......................................................................... 123
4.4.4 Pulse Process Models.......................................................................124
4.4.5 Assessment of Value Stability...........................................................124
References............................................................................................................... 125
Chapter 5 Soft System Methodology in the Management of
Agroecosystem Health and Sustainability Concerns of a
Tropical Highlands Agroecosystem.................................................. 127
5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 127
5.2 Process and Methods................................................................................... 129
5.2.1 Examination of the Problem Situations............................................ 129
5.2.2 Root Definitions and Soft System Modeling.................................... 129
5.2.3 Building Consensus, Compromise, and Collective Action............... 130
5.3 Results.......................................................................................................... 130
5.3.1 Problem Situations............................................................................ 130
5.3.1.1 Drainage and Access Road Problems in Kiawamagira..... 130
5.3.1.2 Gitangu Water Project........................................................ 131
5.3.1.3 Inadequate Extension Services in Kiambu District........... 132
5.3.1.4 Community Inertia in Kiambu District............................. 132
5.3.2 Building Consensus and Root Definitions........................................ 133
5.3.3 Implementation, Monitoring, and Evaluation................................... 135
5.4 Discussion.................................................................................................... 138
5.4.1 Soft System Models.......................................................................... 138
5.4.2 Collective Action, Action Research, and Soft System
Methodology..................................................................................... 143
References............................................................................................................... 143
Chapter 6 Development of Health and Sustainability Indicators for a
Tropical Highlands Agroecosystem.................................................. 145
6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 145
6.2 Process and Methods................................................................................... 146
6.2.1 Development of Community-Driven Indicators............................... 147
6.2.2 Development of Researcher-Proposed Indicators............................. 149
6.2.3 Indicator Measurements.................................................................... 150
6.2.3.1 Community-Driven Indicators........................................... 150
6.2.3.2 Researcher-Proposed Indicators......................................... 150
6.2.4 Refining Researcher-Proposed Indicators......................................... 151
6.3 Results.......................................................................................................... 151
6.3.1 Community-Driven Indicators.......................................................... 151
6.3.2 Researcher-Proposed Indicators....................................................... 153
72773.indb 22 2/28/08 9:55:07 AM
Contents xxiii
6.3.3 Indicator Measurement and Refinement........................................... 156
6.3.3.1 Community Driven............................................................ 156
6.3.3.2 Researcher Proposed.......................................................... 157
6.3.4 Comparison of Indicator Suites........................................................ 165
6.4 Discussion.................................................................................................... 165
6.4.1 Comparison of Indicator Suites........................................................ 165
6.4.2 Indicator Measurement and Refinement........................................... 169
6.4.3 Practicality and Application............................................................. 175
References............................................................................................................... 176
Chapter 7 An Assessment of Health and Sustainability of a Smallholder-
Dominated Tropical Highlands Ecosystem....................................... 179
7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 179
7.2 Process and Methods................................................................................... 180
7.2.1 Spatial and Temporal Trends in the Indicators................................. 180
7.2.2 Evaluation of Goals, Expectations, and Achievements.................... 181
7.3 Results.......................................................................................................... 182
7.3.1 Spatial Trends in the Researcher-Proposed Indicators..................... 182
7.3.2 Evaluation of Temporal Trends in the Researcher-Proposed
Indicators.......................................................................................... 183
7.3.3 Evaluation of Goals, Expectations, and Achievements................... 187
7.4 Discussion.................................................................................................... 189
7.4.1 Spatial and Temporal Trends in the Indicators................................. 192
7.4.2 Evaluation of Goals, Expectations, and Achievements.................... 192
References............................................................................................................... 193
Chapter 8 General Discussion............................................................................ 195
8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 195
8.2 Sustainability............................................................................................... 195
8.3 Agroecosystem Health................................................................................. 196
8.4 Kiambu Agroecosystem............................................................................... 197
8.5 Health and Sustainability Assessment......................................................... 198
8.6 Summary...................................................................................................... 199
Chapter 9 General Conclusions.......................................................................... 201
Appendices.............................................................................................................203
Appendix 1: Questionnaire Used to Carry Out a Census of All the Land-Use
Units in the Village......................................................................................204
Appendix 2: Questionnaire Used for Indicator Measurement at the Land-Use
Unit Level.....................................................................................................206
Index....................................................................................................................... 221
72773.indb 23 2/28/08 9:55:07 AM
72773.indb 24 2/28/08 9:55:07 AM