Educational Psychology and Teacher Decision Making p. 2
Case Study: Hidden Treasure p. 3
Teaching as Decision Making p. 4
Using Research in Classroom Decision Making p. 5
Drawing Conclusions from Research p. 7
Applying Psychological Theories in Classroom Decision Making p. 10
Importance of Regular Assessments in Classroom Decision Making p. 10
Accommodating Diversity in the Classroom p. 11
Developing as a Teacher p. 13
Studying Educational Psychology Effectively p. 14
The Big Picture p. 16
Case Study: More Harm Than Good? p. 16
Development and Diversity
Cognitive and Linguistic Development p. 18
Case Study: Economic Activities p. 19
Basic Principles of Human Development p. 20
Role of the Brain in Cognitive Development p. 22
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development p. 24
Piaget's Basic Assumptions p. 25
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development p. 26
Current Perspectives on Piaget's Theory p. 31
Vygotsky's Theory of Cognitive Development p. 33
Vygotsky's Basic Assumptions p. 34
Current Perspectives on Vygotsky's Theory p. 37
An Information Processing View of Cognitive Development p. 42
Attention p. 43
Learning Strategies p. 44
Knowledge p. 45
Metacognition p. 46
Critiquing Information Processing Theory p. 48
Linguistic Development p. 49
Theoretical Perspectives on Language Development p. 50
Trends in Language Development p. 50
Learning a Second Language p. 53
Considering Diversity in Cognitive and Linguistic Development p. 55
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 55
The Big Picture p. 57
Case Study: In the Eye of the Beholder p. 58
Development of Self, Social Skills, and Morality p. 60
Case Study: The Bad Apple p. 61
Environmental Influences on Personal, Social, and Moral Development p. 61
Effects of Parenting p. 62
Effects of Culture p. 62
Peer Influences p. 64
Self-Socialization p. 64
Development of a Sense of Self p. 65
Factors Influencing the Development of Self-Views p. 66
Developmental Changes in Sense of Self p. 68
Social Development p. 72
Peer Relationships p. 73
Social Cognition p. 77
Fostering Social Skills p. 83
Promoting Social Interaction Among Diverse Groups p. 85
Moral and Prosocial Development p. 86
Developmental Trends in Morality and Prosocial Behavior p. 87
Development of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg's Theory p. 89
Possible Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning: Gilligan's Theory p. 91
Determinants of Moral and Prosocial Behavior p. 92
Promoting Moral and Prosocial Development in the Classroom p. 93
Considering Diversity in Sense of Self, Social Development, and Morality p. 95
Ethnic Differences p. 95
Gender Differences p. 96
Socioeconomic Differences p. 96
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 97
The Big Picture p. 98
Characteristics of Different Age-Groups p. 98
General Themes in Personal, Social, and Moral Development p. 98
Case Study: The Scarlet Letter p. 99
Group Differences p. 102
Case Study: Why Jack Wasn't in School p. 103
Keeping Group Differences in Perspective p. 104
Cultural and Ethnic Differences p. 105
Navigating Different Cultures at Home and at School p. 105
Examples of Cultural and Ethnic Diversity p. 107
Creating a More Multicultural Classroom Environment p. 113
Gender Differences p. 116
Origins of Gender Differences p. 121
Socioeconomic Differences p. 124
Risk Factors Associated with Poverty p. 125
Working with Homeless Students p. 128
Fostering Resilience p. 128
Building on Students' Strengths p. 129
Students at Risk p. 129
Characteristics of Students at Risk p. 130
Why Students Drop Out p. 131
Supporting Students at Risk p. 131
Remembering Within-Group Diversity p. 133
Group Differences and Special Needs p. 134
The Big Picture p. 135
Case Study: The Active and the Passive p. 136
Individual Differences and Special Educational Needs p. 138
Case Study: Tim p. 139
Keeping Individual Differences in Perspective p. 140
Intelligence p. 140
Measuring Intelligence p. 141
How Theorists Conceptualize Intelligence p. 144
Nature, Nurture, and Group Differences in Intelligence p. 147
Being Optimistic About Students' Potential p. 148
Temperament p. 149
Temperament in the Classroom p. 150
Educating Students with Special Needs in General Education Classrooms p. 151
Public Law 94-142: Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) p. 151
Is Inclusion in the Best Interest of Students? p. 153
Classifying Students with Special Needs p. 154
Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties p. 155
Learning Disabilities p. 155
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) p. 159
Speech and Communication Disorders p. 161
General Recommendations for Students with Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties p. 162
Students with Social or Behavioral Problems p. 163
Emotional and Behavioral Disorders p. 163
Autism p. 166
General Recommendations for Students with Social or Behavioral Problems p. 167
Students with General Delays in Cognitive and Social Functioning p. 168
Mental Retardation p. 169
Students with Physical and Sensory Challenges p. 170
Physical and Health Impairments p. 170
Visual Impairments p. 171
Hearing Loss p. 172
Severe and Multiple Disabilities p. 174
General Recommendations for Students with Physical and Sensory Challenges p. 174
Students with Advanced Cognitive Development p. 176
Giftedness p. 176
Considering Diversity When Identifying and Addressing Special Needs p. 178
The Big Picture p. 179
Case Study: Quiet Amy p. 180
Learning and Motivation
Learning and Cognitive Processes p. 182
Case Study: Darren's Day at School p. 183
Looking at Learning from Different Perspectives p. 184
Learning as a Change in Behavior p. 184
Learning as a Change in Mental Representations or Associations p. 185
Learning and the Brain p. 186
Keeping an Open Mind About Theories of Learning p. 187
Basic Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology p. 187
Basic Terminology in Cognitive Psychology p. 189
A Model of Human Memory p. 191
The Nature of the Sensory Register p. 191
Moving Information to Working Memory: The Role of Attention p. 192
The Nature of Working (Short-Term) Memory p. 193
Moving Information to Long-Term Memory: Connecting New Information with Prior Knowledge p. 194
The Nature of Long-Term Memory p. 195
Critiquing the Three-Component Model p. 195
Long-Term Memory Storage p. 196
The Various Forms of Knowledge p. 196
How Declarative Knowledge Is Learned p. 197
How Procedural Knowledge Is Learned p. 206
Prior Knowledge and Working Memory in Long-Term Memory Storage p. 207
Using Mnemonics in the Absence of Relevant Prior Knowledge p. 208
Long-Term Memory Retrieval p. 210
The Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval p. 210
Factors Affecting Retrieval p. 211
Why Learners Sometimes Forget p. 214
Giving Students Time to Process: Effects of Increasing Wait Time p. 216
Accommodating Diversity in Cognitive Processes p. 217
Facilitating Cognitive Processing in Students with Special Needs p. 219
The Big Picture p. 219
Case Study: How Time Flies p. 220
Knowledge Construction p. 222
Case Study: Pulling It All Together p. 223
Constructive Processes in Learning and Memory p. 224
Construction in Storage p. 224
Construction in Retrieval p. 226
Knowledge Construction as a Social Process p. 227
Benefits of Joint Meaning-Making with Peers p. 227
Organizing Knowledge p. 228
Concepts p. 228
Schemas and Scripts p. 233
Theories p. 234
When Knowledge Construction Goes Awry: Origins and Effects of Misconceptions p. 235
Promoting Effective Knowledge Construction p. 238
Providing Opportunities for Experimentation p. 238
Presenting the Ideas of Others p. 239
Emphasizing Conceptual Understanding p. 239
Promoting Dialogue p. 241
Using Authentic Activities p. 242
Creating a Community of Learners p. 243
The Challenge of Conceptual Change p. 245
Considering Diversity in Constructive Processes p. 250
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 251
The Big Picture p. 251
Case Study: Earth-Shaking Summaries p. 251
Higher-Level Thinking Processes p. 254
Case Study: A Question of Speed p. 255
The Nature of Higher-Level Thinking p. 256
Metacognition and Study Strategies p. 257
Effective Study Strategies p. 259
Factors Affecting Strategy Use p. 265
Transfer p. 269
Basic Concepts in Transfer p. 269
Factors Affecting Transfer p. 271
Importance of Retrieval in Transfer p. 273
Problem Solving p. 274
Basic Concepts in Problem Solving p. 275
Cognitive Factors Affecting Problem Solving p. 278
Using Computer Technology to Promote Problem Solving p. 283
Creativity p. 284
Fostering Creativity p. 285
Critical Thinking p. 287
Fostering Critical Thinking p. 288
Considering Diversity in Higher-Level Thinking Processes p. 290
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 291
The Big Picture p. 292
Case Study: Checks and Balances p. 292
Behaviorist Views of Learning p. 294
Case Study: The Attention Getter p. 295
Basic Assumptions of Behaviorism p. 295
Classical Conditioning p. 298
Classical Conditioning of Emotional Responses p. 299
Common Phenomena in Classical Conditioning p. 300
Operant Conditioning p. 301
Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning p. 302
Reinforcement in the Classroom p. 302
Using Reinforcement Effectively p. 307
Shaping New Behaviors p. 310
Effects of Antecedent Stimuli and Responses p. 311
Reducing and Eliminating Undesirable Behaviors p. 314
Extinction p. 314
Cueing Inappropriate Behaviors p. 314
Reinforcing Incompatible Behaviors p. 315
Punishment p. 315
Maintaining Desirable Behaviors Over the Long Run p. 319
Promoting Intrinsic Reinforcement p. 320
Using Intermittent Reinforcement p. 320
Addressing Especially Difficult Classroom Behaviors p. 321
Applied Behavior Analysis p. 321
Functional Analysis and Positive Behavioral Support p. 322
Considering Diversity in Student Behaviors p. 323
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 324
Strengths and Potential Limitations of Behavioral Approaches p. 324
The Big Picture p. 326
Case Study: Hostile Helen p. 326
Social Cognitive Views of Learning p. 328
Case Study: Parlez-Vous Francais? p. 329
Basic Assumptions of Social Cognitive Theory p. 329
The Social Cognitive View of Reinforcement and Punishment p. 331
Expectations p. 331
Vicarious Experiences p. 332
Cognitive Processing p. 332
Decisions About How to Behave p. 333
Nonoccurrence of Expected Consequences p. 333
Modeling p. 334
Behaviors That Can Be Learned Through Modeling p. 335
How Modeling Affects Behavior p. 336
Characteristics of Effective Models p. 337
Helping Students Learn from Models p. 338
Self-Efficacy p. 340
How Self-Efficacy Affects Behavior and Cognition p. 341
Factors in the Development of Self-Efficacy p. 342
Fostering High Self-Efficacy p. 344
Teacher Self-Efficacy p. 346
Self-Regulation p. 346
Self-Regulated Behavior p. 347
Self-Regulated Learning p. 352
Self-Regulated Problem Solving p. 355
Reciprocal Causation p. 357
Considering Diversity from a Social Cognitive Perspective p. 359
Using Diverse Models to Promote Success and Self-Efficacy p. 359
Promoting Self-Regulation in Students at Risk p. 360
Supporting Students with Special Needs p. 360
The Big Picture p. 361
Unifying Ideas in Social Cognitive Theory p. 361
Comparing the Three Perspectives of Learning p. 362
Case Study: Teacher's Lament p. 363
Motivation and Affect p. 364
Case Study: Quick Draw p. 365
The Nature of Motivation p. 365
How Motivation Affects Learning and Behavior p. 366
Extrinsic Versus Intrinsic Motivation p. 367
Theoretical Perspectives of Motivation p. 368
The Trait Perspective p. 368
The Behaviorist Perspective p. 369
The Social Cognitive Perspective p. 370
The Cognitive Perspective p. 370
What Basic Needs Do People Have? p. 370
Self-Worth p. 370
Relatedness p. 372
Affect and Its Effects p. 374
How Affect Is Related to Motivation p. 375
How Affect Is Related to Learning and Cognition p. 376
Anxiety p. 377
Addressing Diversity in Motivation and Affect p. 383
Cultural and Ethnic Differences p. 384
Gender Differences p. 385
Socioeconomic Differences p. 385
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 385
The Big Picture p. 386
Guiding Principles p. 387
Case Study: When "Perfect" Isn't Good Enough p. 387
Cognitive Factors in Motivation p. 390
Case Study: Passing Algebra p. 391
The Interplay of Cognition and Motivation p. 392
Self-Perceptions and Intrinsic Motivation p. 392
Self-Efficacy p. 393
Self-Determination p. 394
Expectancies and Values p. 398
Internalizing the Values of Others p. 399
Fostering Expectancies and Values in the Classroom p. 400
Interest p. 400
Situational Versus Personal Interest p. 401
Promoting Interest in Classroom Subject Matter p. 403
Goals p. 403
Achievement Goals p. 404
Work-Avoidance Goals p. 408
Social Goals p. 408
Career Goals p. 409
Coordinating Multiple Goals p. 409
Dispositions p. 410
Attributions: Perceived Causes of Success and Failure p. 412
How Attributions Influence Affect, Cognition, and Behavior p. 414
Developmental Trends in Attributions p. 415
Factors Influencing the Development of Attributions p. 417
Mastery Orientation Versus Learned Helplessness p. 418
Teacher Expectations and Attributions p. 419
How Expectations and Attributions Affect Classroom Performance p. 420
Forming Productive Expectations and Attributions for Student Performance p. 421
Considering Diversity in the Cognitive Aspects of Motivation p. 424
Ethnic Differences p. 424
Gender Differences p. 425
Socioeconomic Differences p. 425
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 427
The Big Picture p. 428
General Principles of Motivation p. 428
Revisiting the Four Theoretical Perspectives p. 428
Case Study: Writer's Block p. 430
Classroom Strategies
Instructional Strategies p. 432
Case Study: Oregon Trail p. 433
Overview of Instructional Strategies p. 434
Planning for Instruction p. 435
Identifying the Goals of Instruction p. 436
Conducting a Task Analysis p. 440
Developing a Lesson Plan p. 442
Expository Approaches p. 443
Lectures and Textbooks p. 443
Mastery Learning p. 446
Direct Instruction p. 447
Computer-Based Instruction p. 449
Online Research p. 450
Hands-On and Practice Activities p. 451
Discovery Learning p. 451
In-Class Activities p. 453
Computer Simulations and Applications p. 454
Homework p. 455
Authentic Activities p. 456
Interactive and Collaborative Approaches p. 457
Teacher Questions p. 458
Class Discussions p. 460
Reciprocal Teaching p. 462
Technology-Based Discussions p. 465
Cooperative Learning p. 465
Peer Tutoring p. 470
Taking Student Diversity into Account p. 474
Considering Group Differences p. 474
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 475
The Big Picture p. 477
Case Study: Uncooperative Students p. 477
Creating a Productive Learning Environment p. 482
Case Study: A Contagious Situation p. 483
Creating an Environment Conducive to Learning p. 484
Arranging the Classroom p. 485
Creating an Effective Classroom Climate p. 485
Setting Limits p. 490
Planning Activities That Keep Students on Task p. 493
Monitoring What Students Are Doing p. 496
Modifying Instructional Strategies p. 496
Taking Individual and Developmental Differences into Account p. 497
Dealing with Misbehaviors p. 499
Ignoring Behavior p. 499
Cueing a Student p. 500
Discussing a Problem Privately with a Student p. 500
Teaching Self-Regulation Strategies p. 502
Using Behaviorist Approaches p. 503
Conferring with Parents p. 504
Addressing Aggression and Violence at School p. 504
Creating a Nonviolent School Environment p. 506
Intervening Early for Students at Risk p. 507
Providing Intensive Intervention for Students in Trouble p. 507
Taking Student Diversity into Account p. 507
Creating a Supportive Climate p. 508
Defining and Responding to Misbehaviors p. 509
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 510
Coordinating Efforts with Others p. 510
Working with Other Teachers p. 510
Working with the Community at Large p. 512
Working with Parents p. 512
The Big Picture p. 519
Case Study: Old Friends p. 520
Classroom Assessment Strategies p. 522
Case Study: The Math Test p. 523
Assessments as Tools p. 524
The Various Forms of Educational Assessment p. 525
Using Assessment for Different Purposes p. 527
Promoting Learning p. 527
Guiding Instructional Decision Making p. 529
Diagnosing Learning and Performance Problems p. 529
Promoting Self-Regulation p. 529
Determining What Students Have Learned p. 529
Important Qualities of Good Assessment p. 530
Reliability p. 531
Standardization p. 534
Validity p. 534
Praticality p. 538
Informal Assessment p. 539
RSVP Characteristics of Informal Assessment p. 540
Paper-Pencil Assessment p. 541
Constructing the Assessment Instrument p. 542
Administering the Assessment p. 549
Scoring Students' Responses p. 550
RSVP Characteristics of Paper-Pencil Assessment p. 552
Performance Assessment p. 553
Choosing Appropriate Performance Tasks p. 553
Planning and Administering the Assessment p. 555
Scoring Students' Responses p. 556
RSVP Characteristics of Performance Assessment p. 557
Including Students in the Assessment Process p. 561
Encouraging Risk Taking p. 562
Evaluating an Assessment Tool Through Item Analysis p. 563
Taking Student Diversity into Account in Classroom Assessments p. 564
Test Anxiety p. 564
Testwiseness p. 566
Accommodating Group Differences p. 566
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 566
The Big Picture p. 568
Learning, Motivation, and Assessment p. 568
General Guidelines for Classroom Assessment p. 568
Case Study: Pick and Choose p. 569
Summarizing Student Achievement p. 570
Case Study: B in History p. 571
Revisiting Self-Regulation and the RSVP Characteristics p. 572
Summarizing the Results of a Single Assessment p. 572
Raw Scores p. 572
Criterion-Referenced Scores p. 573
Norm-Referenced Scores p. 574
Using Criterion-Referenced Versus Norm-Referenced Scores in the Classroom p. 577
Determining Final Class Grades p. 577
Considering Improvement, Effort, and Extra Credit p. 579
Choosing Criterion-Referenced or Norm-Referenced Grades p. 580
Including Students in the Grading Process p. 581
Using Portfolios p. 582
Standardized Tests p. 584
Types of Standardized Tests p. 584
Technology and Assessment p. 587
Guidelines for Choosing and Using Standardized Tests p. 587
Interpreting Standardized Test Scores p. 588
High-Stakes Testing and Accountability p. 591
Problems with High-Stakes Testing p. 592
Potential Solutions to the Problems p. 593
Taking Student Diversity into Account p. 594
Cultural Bias p. 594
Language Differences p. 595
Accommodating Students with Special Needs p. 595
Confidentiality and Communication About Assessment Results p. 596
Communicating Assessment Results to Students and Parents p. 598
The Big Picture p. 599
Case Study: Can Johnny Read? p. 600
Describing Associations with Correlation Coefficients p. A-1
Analyses of the Ending Case Studies p. B-1
Matching Book and Ancillary Content to the Praxis Principles of Learning and Teaching Tests p. C-1
Glossary p. G-1
References p. R-1
Name Index p. N-1
Subject Index p. S-1