Table Of Contents:

Chapter 1 Microbes in the Marine Environment 1(24)

Marine microbiology is one of the most exciting and important areas of modern science 2(1)

Marine microbiology encompasses all microscopic organisms and viruses 2(1)

Marine microbes are found in all three domains of cellular life 3(1)

Horizontal gene transfer confounds our understanding of evolution 4(1)

Viruses are noncellular entities with great importance in marine ecosystems 4(1)

Microbial processes shape the living world 5(1)

Marine microbes show great variation in size 5(2)

The world's oceans and seas form an interconnected water system 7(2)

The upper surface of the ocean is in constant motion owing to winds 9(1)

Deep-water circulation systems transport water between the ocean basins 10(1)

Seawater is a complex mixture of inorganic and organic compounds 10(1)

Light and temperature have important effects on microbial processes 11(2)

Marine microbes form a major component of the plankton 13(1)

Microbes, particles, and dissolved nutrients are not evenly distributed in seawater 14(2)

Microbes play a key role in the formation of sediments 16(1)

Microbes colonize surfaces through formation of biofilms 17(2)

Microbes in sea ice form an important part of the food chain in polar regions 19(1)

Microbial activity at hydrothermal vents provides an oasis of life in the deep sea 19(1)

Cold seeps also support diverse life 20(1)

Living organisms are the habitats of many microbes 21(1)

Conclusions 22(1)

References 22(1)

Further reading 23(2)

Chapter 2 Methods in Marine Microbiology 25(34)

Sampling, General Experimental Procedures, And Remote Sensing 26(1)

The aim of microbial ecology is the study of the diversity and activities of microbes in situ 26(1)

Measurement of specific cell constituents may be used as biomarkers of microbial activity 26(1)

Remote sensing and sampling permits analysis of microbial activities 27(1)

Microbiological sampling requires special techniques 27(2)

Mecocosm experiments attempt to simulate natural conditions 29(1)

Microelectrodes and biosensors are used to measure environmental changes 30(1)

Isotopes are used to study microbial transformations of compounds 30(1)

Direct Observation And Enumeration Of Microbes 31(1)

Light and electron microscopy are used to study morphology and structure of microbes 31(1)

Epifluorescence light microscopy enables enumeration of marine microbes 32(1)

Confocal laser scanning microscopy enables recognition of living microbes within their habitat 33(1)

Flow cytometry measures the number and size of particles 33(2)

Culture-Based Methods For Isolation And Identification Of Microbes 35(1)

Different microbes require specific culture media and conditions for growth 35(1)

Enrichment culture selects for microbes with specific growth requirements 36(2)

Phenotypic testing is used for identification and detailed characterization of many cultured bacteria 38(1)

Analysis of microbial components can be used for bacterial classification and identification 38(2)

Nucleic-Acid-Based Methods 40(1)

The use of nucleic-acid based methods has had a major impact on the study of marine microbial diversity 40(1)

Sequencing of ribosomal RNA genes is the most widely used tool in studies of microbial diversity 40(2)

The first step in all nucleic acid investigations involves the isolation of genomic DNA or RNA from the culture or community 42(1)

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 42(2)

Genomic fingerprinting is used for detailed analysis of cultured microbes 44(2)

Determination of GC ratios and DNA-DNA hybridization is used in bacterial taxonomy 46(1)

DNA sequencing is a major tool in marine microbiology 46(1)

"Next-generation" technologies allow inexpensive high-throughput sequencing 46(1)

Sequence data are used for phylogenetic analysis 47(1)

Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism (TRFLP) are widely used to assess composition of microbial communities 48(1)

Elucidating the full genome sequence of microbes has provided major insights into their functional roles 49(2)

Metagenomics is revolutionizing our understanding of marine microbial ecology 51(2)

Fluorescent hybridization (FISH) allows visualization and quantification of specific microbes 53(1)

Metatranscriptomics and metaproteomics reveal metabolic activities in the environment 54(1)

Microarrays enable assessment of gene activity in the environment 55(1)

Conclusions 55(1)

References 55(1)

Further reading 56(3)

Chapter 3 Metabolic Diversity and Ecophysiology 59(32)

All cells need to obtain energy and conserve it in the compound ATP 60(1)

All cells need carbon as the major component of cellular material 60(1)

Phototrophy involves conversion of light energy to chemical energy 60(1)

Oxygenic photosynthesis involves two distinct but coupled photosystems 61(1)

Anaerobic anoxygenic photosynthesis uses only one type of reaction center 62(1)

Aerobic anoxygenic phototrophy is widespread in planktonic bacteria 62(1)

Some phototrophs use rhodopsins as light-harvesting pigments 63(1)

Chemolithotrophs use inorganic electron donors as a source of energy and reducing power 63(1)

Thiotrophic bacteria use sulfur compounds as electron donor 63(2)

Many chemolithotrophs use hydrogen as an electron donor 65(1)

Nitrification by Bacteria and Archaea is a major process in the marine nitrogen cycle 65(1)

The Calvin-Benson cycle is the main method of carbon dioxide fixation in autotrophs 66(1)

Some Archaea and Bacteria use alternative pathways to fix CO2 66(1)

Fixation of nitrogen makes this essential element available for building cellular material in all life 67(1)

Many marine microbes obtain energy by the fermentation of organic compounds 68(1)

Aerobic and anaerobic respiration use external electron acceptors 68(1)

Reduction of nitrate and denitrification result in release of nitrogen and other gases 69(1)

Sulfate reduction is a major process in marine sediments 69(1)

Methanogenesis is a special type of metabolism carried out only by a group of Archaea 70(1)

Aerobic catabolism of methane and other C1 compounds is widespread in coastal and oceanic habitats 70(1)

Use of complex macromolecules requires the synthesis of extracellular enzymes 71(1)

Acquisition of iron is a major challenge for marine microbes 71(1)

The growth of bacterial cells depends on availability of nutrients and environmental factors 72(1)

Bacteria adapt to starvation by a series of coordinated changes to cell metabolism 72(1)

Most marine microbes are adapted to an oligotrophic lifestyle and grow very slowly 73(1)

Some bacteria enter a "viable but nonculturable" state in the environment 73(1)

Nutrients are acquired via specialized transport mechanisms 74(1)

Growth efficiency of many marine bacteria is probably low 75(1)

Microbes use a variety of mechanisms to regulate cellular activities 75(1)

Some bacteria use motility in the quest for nutrients and optimal conditions 76(3)

Formation of biofilms is an important step in microbial colonization of surfaces 79(1)

Pili are important for bacterial attachment to surfaces and exchange of genetic information 80(1)

Antagonistic interactions between microbes occur on particles or surfaces 80(1)

Quorum sensing is an intercellular communication system for regulation of gene expression 81(1)

Most marine microbes grow at low temperatures 82(2)

Microbes growing in hydrothermal systems are adapted to very high temperatures 84(1)

Microbes that inhabit the deep ocean must withstand a very high hydrostatic pressure 85(1)

Microbes vary in their requirements for oxygen or tolerance of its presence 86(1)

Ultraviolet irradiation has lethal and mutagenic effects 87(1)

Microbes are protected from osmotic damage by various mechanisms 87(1)

Conclusions 88(1)

References 88(1)

Further reading 89(2)

Chapter 4 Marine Bacteria 91(30)

Overview Of Diversity Of The Bacteria 92(1)

The domain Bacteria contains about 80 phyla, many of which have no cultivated members 92(1)

There is no generally accepted concept for the definition of bacterial species 93(1)

Bacteria show a variety of cell forms and structure 93(1)

The cell wall is an important feature of bacterial cells 94(2)

Many Bacteria produce a glycocalyx or capsule 96(1)

Phylogenetic studies of planktonic Bacteria reveal a small number of major clades 96(2)

Major Types Of Marine Bacteria, Grouped By Phenotype 98(1)

Several groups of bacteria carry out anoxygenic photosynthesis 98(1)

Nitrifying bacteria grow chemolithotrophically using reduced inorganic nitrogen compounds as electron donors 99(2)

A wide range of Proteobacteria can grow chemolithotrophically using reduced sulfur compounds 101(1)

Aerobic methanotrophs and methylotrophs are widespread in coastal and oceanic habitats 102(1)

The pseudomonads are a heterogeneous group of chemoorganotrophic, aerobic, rod-shaped Proteobacteria 103(1)

Free-living aerobic nitrogen-fixing bacteria are important in sediments 103(1)

The Enterobacteriaceae is a large and well-defined family of Gammaproteobacteria 103(1)

Vibrio and related genera have worldwide distribution in coastal and ocean water and sediments 104(1)

Some members of the Vibrionaceae are bioluminescent 104(2)

The Oceanospiralles are characterized by their ability to break down complex organic compounds 106(1)

Magnetotactic bacteria orient themselves in the Earth's magnetic field 107(1)

Bdellovibrio is a predator of other bacteria 108(1)

Budding and stalked Proteobacteria show asymmetric cell division 108(1)

Sulfur- and sulfate-reducing bacteria have a major role in the sulfur cycle 109(1)

The Cyanobacteria carry out oxygenic photosynthesis 110(1)

Many marine Cyanobacteria carry out nitrogen fixation 111(1)

The genera Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus dominate the picoplankton in large areas of the Earth's oceans 112(2)

Cyanobacteria are important in the formation of microbial mats in shallow water 114(1)

The Firmicutes are a major branch of Gram-positive Bacteria 114(1)

Epulopiscium fishelsoni and related species are giant bacteria with a unique "viviparous" lifestyle 115(1)

The Actinobacteria is a large phylum including the mycobacteria and actinomycetes 116(1)

The Cytophaga-Flavobacterium-Bacteroides group is morphologically and metabolically diverse 116(1)

The Planctomycetes are a group with cells that show some similarities to eukaryotes 117(1)

Verrucomicrobia is a poorly characterized phylum of Bacteria 118(1)

The spirochetes are Gram-negative, tightly coiled, flexuous bacteria distinguished by very active motility 118(1)

Aquifex and Thermotoga are hyperthermophiles 118(1)

Conclusions 119(1)

References 119(1)

Further reading 120(1)

Chapter 5 Marine Archaea 121(12)

Several aspects of cell structure and function distinguish the Archaea from the Bacteria 122(1)

The Euryarcheaota and Crenarchaeota form the major branches of the Archaea 122(1)

Many members of the Euryarchaeota produce methane 122(2)

Archaea in deep sediments can carry out anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to sulfate reduction 124(1)

Thermococcus and Pyrococcus are hyperthermophiles found at hydrothermal vents 125(1)

Archaeoglobus and Ferroglobus are hyperthermophilic sulfate-reducers and iron-oxidizers 126(1)

Some Euryarchaeota exist in hypersaline environments 126(1)

Nanoarchaeum is an obligate parasite of another archaeon, Igniococcus 127(1)

The Crenarchaeota include hyperthermophiles and psychrophiles 127(1)

Hyperthermophilic Crenarchaeota belong to the order Desulfurococcales 127(1)

The psychrophilic marine Crenarchaeota are major members of the plankton 128(1)

Conclusions 129(2)

References 131(1)

Further reading 131(2)

Chapter 6 Marine Eukaryotic Microbes 133(20)

The term "protist" is used to describe an extremely diverse collection of unicellular eukaryotic microbes 134(1)

Systems for the classification of eukaryotic microbes are still developing 135(1)

Many protists possess flagella 135(1)

The euglenids may be phototrophic, heterotrophic, or mixotrophic 136(1)

The bicosoecids are a group of highly active bacterivorous flagellates 137(1)

The choanoflagellates have a unique feeding mechanism 138(1)

Dinoflagellates have critical roles in marine systems 138(1)

Dinoflagellates undertake diurnal vertical migration 139(1)

Some dinoflagellates exhibit bioluminescence 139(1)

The ciliates are voracious grazers of other protists and bacteria 140(1)

The haptophytes (prymnesiophytes) are major components of ocean phytoplankton 141(3)

Diatoms are extremely diverse and abundant primary producers in the oceans 144(1)

Diatoms and their products---past and present---have many applications 145(1)

Protists in the picoplankton size range are extremely widespread and diverse 145(1)

Raphidophytes are stramenopiles which may cause harmful blooms 146(1)

Thraustochytrids and labyrinthulids play an important role in breakdown and absorption of organic matter 147(1)

Amoebozoa may be important grazers of bacteria associated with particles 148(1)

Radiolarians and foraminifera have highly diverse morphologies with mineral shells 148(1)

Marine fungi are especially important in decomposition of complex materials in coastal habitats 149(2)

Conclusions 151(1)

References 151(1)

Further reading 152(1)

Chapter 7 Marine Viruses 153(20)

Viruses are extremely diverse in structure and genetic composition 154(1)

Viruses are the most abundant biological entities in seawater 155(2)

Phages are viruses that infect bacterial and archaeal cells 157(1)

The life cycle of phages shows a number of distinct stages 158(2)

Lysogeny occurs when the phage genome is integrated into the host genome 160(1)

Large DNA viruses are important pathogens of planktonic protists 161(2)

Photosynthetic protists are also infected by RNA viruses 163(1)

The role of viruses as pathogens of heterotrophic protists remains unclear 164(1)

Loss of infectivity of viruses arises from irreparable damage to the nucleic acid or protein capsid 165(1)

Measurement of virus production rates is important for assessing the role of virus-induced mortality 165(1)

Viral mortality "lubricates" the biological pump 166(1)

Viral mortality plays a major role in structuring diversity of microbial communities 166(1)

Marine viruses show enormous genetic diversity 167(1)

Viromes are reservoirs of genetic diversity and exchange 167(1)

Conclusions 168(2)

References 170(1)

Further reading 171(2)

Chapter 8 Microbes in Ocean Processes---Carbon Cycling 173(14)

Development of the microbial loop concept transformed our understanding of ocean processes 174(1)

The fate of carbon dominates consideration of the microbial ecology of the oceans 175(1)

Marine phytoplankton are responsible for about half of the global CO2 fixation 175(3)

As well as light, photosynthetic activity depends on the availability of nutrients 178(1)

The importance of various components of the microbial loop varies according to circumstances 179(3)

The microbial loop results in retention of dissolved nutrients 182(1)

Ingestion of bacteria by protists plays a key role in the microbial loop 183(1)

The "viral shunt" catalyzes nutrient regeneration in the upper ocean 184(1)

Eutrophication of coastal waters affects microbial activity 185(1)

Conclusions 185(1)

References 186(1)

Further reading 186(1)

Chapter 9 Microbes in Ocean Processes---Nitrogen, Sulfur, Iron, and Phosphorus Cycling 187(16)

Nutrient Limitation 188(1)

Key elements may act as limiting nutrients for different groups of microbes 188(1)

Productivity of surface waters shows marked geographical variations 188(1)

Ocean microbes require iron 189(1)

The Nitrogen Cycle 190(1)

Major shifts in our understanding of the marine nitrogen cycle are in progress 190(1)

New nitrogen-fixers have been discovered recently 191(1)

Fixed nitrogen is returned to the inorganic pool by ammonification and nitrification 191(1)

Denitrification and anammox reactions return nitrogen to its elemental form 192(1)

Microbial processes in sediments are a major contributor to nitrogen cycling 193(1)

The Sulfur Cycle 193(1)

The oceans contain large quantities of sulphur---an essential element for life 193(1)

Metabolism of organic sulfur compounds is especially important in surface waters 193(3)

A fraction of DMSP production leads to release of the gas dimethyl sulfide (DMS) 196(1)

Microbial sulfate reduction and sulfide oxidation occur in sediments, vents, and seeps 196(1)

The Phosphorus Cycle 197(1)

Phosphorus is often a limiting or colimiting nutrient 197(3)

Marine microbes are adapted to low and variable levels of phosphorus 200(1)

Conclusions 201(1)

References 201(1)

Further reading 202(1)

Chapter 10 Symbiotic Associations 203(20)

Zooxanthellae and other photosynthetic endosymbionts are vital for the nutrition of many marine animals 204(1)

Coral bleaching occurs due to the breakdown of the symbiosis between zooxanthellae and their host 205(1)

Scleractinian corals are multipartner symbiotic systems (holobionts) 206(1)

Photosynthetic zooxanthellae boost the growth of giant clams in nutrient-poor waters 207(1)

Worms and clams at hydrothermal vents obtain nutrition from chemosynthetic bacterial endosymbionts 207(2)

Chemosynthetic symbionts are widely distributed in marine invertebrates 209(3)

Animals colonizing whale falls depend on autotrophic and heterotrophic symbionts 212(1)

Some hydrothermal vent animals have dense populations of bacteria on their surface 212(1)

Some fish and invertebrates use bacteria to make light 213(1)

The bobtail squid uses bacterial bioluminescence for camouflage 214(1)

Endosymbionts of bryozoans produce compounds that protect the host from predation 215(1)

Sponges contain dense communities of specific microbes 215(3)

Some protists with endosymbionts can switch from heterotrophic to phototrophic metabolism 218(1)

Viruses may help a sea slug to use "stolen" chloroplasts for photosynthesis 218(1)

Conclusions 219(1)

References 219(1)

Further reading 220(3)

Chapter 11 Microbial Diseases of Marine Organisms 223(36)

Diseases Of Invertebrates 224(1)

Diseases of invertebrates have major ecological and economic impact 224(1)

Infectious diseases of corals have emerged as a major threat to their survival 224(2)

The fungus Aspergillus sydowii caused a mass mortality of sea fans in the Caribbean Sea 226(1)

Black band disease of corals is a long-established disease of corals worldwide 226(1)

White plague and white pox are major diseases affecting Caribbean reefs 227(1)

Extensive tissue necrosis of corals may involve bacteria and protistan parasites 227(1)

The role of viruses in coral diseases is unclear 227(1)

Sponge disease is a poorly investigated global phenomenon 228(1)

Vibrios are a major cause of important diseases of cultured mollusks 228(1)

A wide range of other bacteria can cause infections in bivalve mollusks 229(3)

Virus infections are a major problem in oyster culture 232(1)

Bacterial and viral diseases are major problems in aquaculture of crustaceans 232(1)

Expansion of intensive prawn culture has been accompanied by a dramatic spread in viral diseases 233(1)

Bacteria can cause epizootics with high mortalities in crustaceans 234(1)

Parasitic dinoflagellates are major pathogens of crustaceans 235(1)

Diseases Of Vertebrates 235(1)

Microbial diseases of fish cause major losses in aquaculture, but effects on natural populations are harder to determine 235(1)

The importance of fish diseases in aquaculture has led to the development of specialized branches of veterinary science and diagnostic microbiology 236(2)

Bacteria produce infections in fish using a range of pathogenic mechanisms 238(1)

Vibrios are responsible for some of the main infections of marine fish 238(3)

Pasteurellosis is a major disease in warm-water marine fish 241(1)

Aeromonas salmonicida has a broad geographic range affecting fish in fresh and marine waters 241(2)

Marine flexibacteriosis is caused by an opportunist pathogen of low virulence 243(1)

Piscirickettsia and Francisella are intracellular proteobacteria causing economically important diseases in salmon and cod 243(1)

Intracellular Gram-positive bacteria cause chronic infections of fish 244(1)

Several Gram-positive cocci cause diseases affecting the central nervous system of fish 245(1)

Viruses cause numerous diseases of marine fish 245(1)

Infectious salmon anemia virus is one of the most important pathogens in salmon culture 246(1)

Viral hemorrhagic septicemia virus infects many species of wild fish 246(1)

Lymphocystis virus causes a highly contagious chronic skin infection of fish 247(1)

Birnaviruses appear to be widespread in marine fish and invertebrates 247(1)

Viral nervous necrosis is an emerging disease with major impact 247(1)

Protists can cause disease in fish via infections, toxins, and direct physical effects 247(1)

Dinoflagellate and diatom toxins can affect marine mammals 248(1)

Mass mortalities in the late twentieth century prompted the study of viral diseases of marine mammals 249(1)

Viruses from nine different families have been linked to diseases of marine mammals 250(1)

Several species of bacteria and fungi infect marine mammals 251(1)

Sea turtles are affected by a virus promoting growth of tumors 251(1)

Diseases Of Seaweeds And Seagrasses 252(1)

Fungi, bacteria, and protists cause ecologically and economically important diseases of seaweeds and seagrasses 252(1)

Many species of algae contain virus-like particles 253(1)

Conclusions 254(1)

References 254(2)

Further reading 256(3)

Chapter 12 Marine Microbes as Agents of Human Disease 259(24)

Pathogenic vibrios are common in marine and estuarine environments 260(1)

Cholera is a major human disease with a reservoir in coastal environments 260(1)

Vibrio cholerae produces disease in humans owing to production of a toxin and other pathogenic factors 261(1)

Control of cholera remains a major world health problem 261(1)

Mobile genetic elements play a major role in the virulence of Vibrio cholerae 262(1)

Non-O1 and non-O139 serotypes of Vibrio cholerae are widely distributed in coastal and estuarine waters 263(1)

Vibrio vulnificus causes serious illness associated with seafood 263(2)

Distribution of Vibrio vulnificus in the marine environment is affected by temperature and salinity 265(1)

Vibrio vulnificus and other marine vibrios can cause wound infections 265(1)

Seafood-borne infection by Vibrio parahaemolyticus is common throughout the world 266(1)

Scombroid fish poisoning is a result of bacterial enzymic activity 267(1)

Botulism is a rare lethal intoxication from seafood 268(1)

Fugu poisoning is caused by a neurotoxin of probable bacterial origin 268(1)

Some diseases of marine mammals and fish can be transmitted to humans 269(1)

Toxic dinoflagellates and diatoms pose serious threats to human health 270(1)

Paralytic shellfish poisoning is caused by saxitoxins produced by dinoflagellates 270(1)

Management of paralytic shellfish poisoning depends on assaying toxins in shellfish 271(1)

Brevetoxin can cause illness via ingestion or inhalation during red tides 272(1)

Diarrhetic shellfish poisoning and azaspiracid poisoning result in gastrointestinal symptoms 273(1)

Amnesic shellfish poisoning is caused by toxic diatoms 274(1)

Ciguatera fish poisoning has a major impact on the health of tropical islanders 274(1)

Dinoflagellates and diatoms probably produce toxins as antipredator defense mechanisms 275(2)

The incidence of harmful algal blooms and toxin-associated diseases is increasing owing to the interaction of many complex factors

Coastal waters must be regularly monitored to assess the development of harmful algal blooms 277(2)

Conclusions 279(1)

References 279(2)

Further reading 281(2)

Chapter 13 Microbial Aspects of Marine Biofouling, Biodeterioration, and Pollution 283(24)

Biofouling And Biodeterioration 284(1)

Microbial biofilms are often the first phase in biofouling 284(1)

Microbially induced corrosion occurs as a result of the activities of microorganisms within biofilms on metals, alloys and composite materials 284(1)

Microbes cause biodeterioration of marine wooden structures and timber 285(1)

Microbial growth and metabolism are the major cause of spoilage of seafood products 285(1)

Processing, packaging, and inhibitors of spoilage are used to extend shelf-life 286(1)

Some seafood products are produced by deliberate manipulation of microbial activities 287(1)

Microbial Aspects Of Marine Pollution By Sewage 287(1)

Coastal pollution by wastewater is a significant source of human disease 287(1)

A range of human viruses are present in seawater contaminated by sewage 288(1)

Fecal indicator bacteria have been used for many years to test public health risks in marine water 289(2)

Escherichia coli and coliforms are unreliable indicators of human fecal pollution of the sea 291(1)

The fecal streptococci or enterococci are more reliable indicators for monitoring marine water quality 291(1)

Molecular-based methods permit quicker analysis of indicator organisms and microbial source tracking 292(1)

A variety of alternative indicator species have been investigated 293(1)

Different countries use different quality standards for marine waters 294(1)

Sewage pollution of water in which shellfish are harvested for human consumption poses a serious health hazard 294(3)

Many countries have microbiological standards for the classification of waters in which shellfish are cultivated 297(1)

Direct testing for pathogens in shellfish is possible using molecular techniques 297(1)

Oil And Other Chemical Pollution 298(1)

Oil pollution of the marine environment is a major problem 298(1)

A range of microbes are responsible for biodegradation of oil at sea 299(1)

The fate of oil depends on a combination of physical and biological processes 299(2)

Biodegradation is enhanced by addition of emulsifiers 301(1)

Addition of nutrients is necessary to increase the rate of oil biodegradation 301(1)

Bioremediation has been used to lessen the impact of oil spills on vulnerable coasts 302(1)

Microbes are important in the distribution of persistent organic pollutants 302(1)

Bacteria are effective in the removal of heavy metals from contaminated sediments 303(1)

Microbial systems can be used for monitoring the environment for toxic chemicals 303(1)

Mobilization of mercury by bacterial metabolism leads to accumulation of toxic mehylmercury 304(1)

Conclusions 304(1)

References 305(1)

Further reading 306(1)

Chapter 14 Marine Microbes and Biotechnology 307(24)

Enzymes from marine microbes have many applications 308(2)

DNA polymerases from hydrothermal vent organisms are widely used in molecular biology 310(1)

Metagenomics and bioinformatics lead to new biotechnological developments 311(1)

Polymers from marine bacteria are finding increasing applications 312(1)

Microalgae are promising new sources of biofuels 312(1)

Marine microbes are a rich source of biomedical products 313(1)

Bioactive compounds from marine invertebrates may be produced by microbial symbionts 313(2)

New antimicrobial compounds may be discovered through study of complex microbial communities 315(1)

Marine microbes are the source of a range of health-promoting products 315(1)

New approaches to antifouling have been discovered through study of microbial colonization of surfaces 316(1)

Marine microbes are a rich source for biomimetics, nanotechnology, and bioelectronics 316(1)

Microbial biotechnology has many applications in aquaculture 317(2)

Most bacterial pathogens can be killed or inhibited by antimicrobial agents 319(1)

Resistance to antimicrobial agents is a major problem in aquaculture 320(1)

Vaccination of finfish is widely used in aquaculture 321(1)

Recombinant DNA technology is used to produce vaccines for diseases caused by viruses and some bacteria 322(1)

DNA vaccination or genetic immunization depends on expression of a sequence encoding the protective antigen 323(3)

Probiotics, prebiotics, and immunostimulants are widely used in marine aquaculture 326(1)

Conclusions 327(1)

References 327(2)

Further reading 329(2)

Chapter 15 Concluding Remarks 331(2)
Glossary 333(8)
Abbreviations 341(2)
Index 343(24)
Color plates 367