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Summary:
Publisher Summary 1
HVDC and FACTS Controllers: Applications of Static Converters in Power Systemsfocuses on the technical advances and developments that have taken place in the past ten years or so in the fields of High Voltage DC transmission and Flexible AC transmission systems. These advances (in HVDC transmission and FACTS) have added a new dimension to power transmission capabilities. The book covers a wide variety of topics, some of which are listed below: -Current Source and Voltage Source Converters,
-Synchronization Techniques for Power Converters,
-Capacitor Commutated Converters,
-Active Filters,
-Typical Disturbances on HVDC Systems,
-Simulation Techniques,
-Static Var Compensators based on Chain Link Converters,
-Advanced Controllers,
-Trends in Modern HVDC. In addition to EHV transmission, HVDC technology has impacted on a number of other areas as well. As an example, a chapter dealing with HVDC Light applications is included providing recent information on both on-shore and off-shore applications of wind farms.
目录
Table Of Contents:
Preface xvii
Acronyms xxi
1. INTRODUCTION TO HVDC TRANSMISSION 1(14)
1.1 Introduction 1(4)
1.2 Comparison of AC-DC Transmission 5(7)
1.2.1 Evaluation of Transmission Cost
1.2.2 Evaluation of Technical Consideration
1.2.3 Evaluation of Reliability and Availability Costs
1.2.4 Applications of dc Transmission
1.3 Types of HVDC Systems 12(1)
1.3.1 Monopolar Link
1.3.2 Bipolar Link
1.3.3 Homopolar ink
1.4 References 13(2)
2. TYPES OF CONVERTERS 15(24)
2.1 Introduction 15(2)
2.2 Current Source Converters (CSC) 17(9)
2.2.1 Case with no overlap period
2.2.2 Case with overlap period less than 60 degrees
2.3 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 26(12)
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Control of the DC Capacitor Voltage
2.3.3 VSC with AC Current Control
2.3.4 VSC with AC Voltage Control
2.4 Closing Remarks 38(1)
2.5 References 38(1)
3. SYNCHRONIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR POWER CONVERTERS 39(28)
3.1 Introduction 39(1)
3.2 Review of GFUs 40(2)
3.2.1 Individual Phase Control (IPC) Unit
3.2.2 Equi-Distant Pulse Control (EPC) Unit
3.3 GFUs - Design And Analysis 42(8)
3.3.1 Conventional GFU
3.3.2 DQO GFU
3.3.3 Comparison
3.4 Tests On GFUs 50(4)
3.4.1 Loss of Synchronization Voltage
3.4.2 Harmonic Distortion Test
3.5 EMTP Simulation Of A Test System 54(11)
3.5.1 Start-up Of System Model
3.5.2 10% Step Change In Current Order
3.5.3 Single Phase Fault
3.5.4 DC Line Fault
3.6 Conclusions 65(1)
3.7 Acknowledgement 65(1)
3.8 References 65(2)
4. HVDC CONTROLS 67(28)
4.1 Historical Background 67(2)
4.2 Functions of HVDC Controls 69(2)
4.3 Control Basics for a Two-terminal DC Link 71(4)
4.4 Current Margin Control Method 75(5)
4.4.1 Rectifier Mode of Operation
4.4.2 Inverter Mode of Operation
4.5 Current Control at the Rectifier 80(2)
4.6 Inverter Extinction Angle Control 82(5)
4.6.1 Measurement of Gamma - Approach 1
4.6.2 Prediction of Gamma - Approach 2
4.7 Hierarchy of Controls 87(5)
4.7.1 Bipole Controller (Figure 4-14)
4.7.2 Pole Controller (Figure 4-15)
4.7.3 Valve Group Controller (Figure 4-16)
4.8 Action By Controls After a Disturbance 92(1)
4.9 References 93(2)
5. FORCED COMMUTATED HVDC CONVERTERS 95(22)
5.1 Introduction 95(1)
5.2 Commutation Techniques for HVDC Converters 96(12)
5.2.1 Definition of Commutation
5.2.2 Line (or Natural) Commutation
5.2.3 Circuit Commutation
5.2.4 Series Capacitor Circuit
5.2.5 Self-Commutation
5.2.6 Voltage Source Converters
5.2.7 Regions of Converter Operation
5.3 Examples of FC Converters for HVDC Transmission 108(6)
5.3.1 Circuit-Commutated Converters
5.3.2 Self-Commutated Converters
5.4 References 114(3)
6. CAPACITOR COMMUTATED CONVERTERS FOR HVDC SYSTEMS 117(22)
6.1 Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) 117(4)
6.1.1 Reactive Power Management
6.1.2 Thyristor Valve Modules
6.2 Controlled Series Capacitor Converter (CSCC) 121(1)
6.3 Comparison of CCC and CSCC 121(8)
6.3.1 Steady State Performance
6.3.2 Transient Performance
6.4 Garabi Interconnection between Argentina-Brazil 129(8)
6.4.1 Valve Stresses
6.4.2 AC Switchyard
6.4.3 AC Filters
6.4.4 Thyristor Valves Modules
6.4.5 Modular Design Benefits
6.5 Closing Remarks 137(1)
6.6 Acknowledgement 137(1)
6.7 References 137(2)
7. STATIC COMPENSATORS: STATCOM BASED ON CHAIN-LINK CONVERTERS 139(12)
7.1 Introduction 139(4)
7.1.1 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
7.2 The Chainlink Converter 143(4)
7.2.1 Chain Link Ratings
7.2.2 Losses
7.3 Advantages of the Chain Circuit STATCOM 147(1)
7.4 Design for Production 148(1)
7.5 Acknowledgement 149(1)
7.6 References 149(2)
8. HVDC SYSTEMS USING VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS 151(26)
8.1 Introduction 151(1)
8.2 Basic Elements of HVDC using VSCs 152(2)
8.2.1 Voltage Source Converters
8.2.2 The XLPE Cables
8.3 Voltage Source Converter 154(7)
8.3.1 Operating Principles of a VSC
8.3.2 Design Considerations
8.4 Applications 161(5)
8.4.1 In Environmentally Sensitive Locations, i.e. City Centres
8.4.2 Infeeds of Small Scale Renewable
8.4.3 Power From Wind Farms
8.4.4 Increasing Capacity on Existing RoW
8.4.5 Improved Reliability of City Centres
8.5 Tjaereborg Windpower Project in Denmark 166(4)
8.5.1 Description of the Project
8.5.2 Main Data
8.5.3 Operational Regime of the VSC
8.5.4 Power Quality
8.5.5 Control System
8.5.6 DC Cable
8.5.7 Building
8.5.8 Performed Tests on Site
8.5.9 Advantages
8.6 Power Supply to Remote Locations (i.e. Islands) 170(2)
8.6.1 The Gotland Island System
8.7 Asynchronous Inter-Connections 172(4)
8.7.1 Directlink Project - New South Wales and Queensland
8.7.2 Main System Components
8.7.3 Control System
8.8 Concluding Remarks 176(1)
8.9 Acknowledgement 176(1)
8.10 References 176(1)
9. ACTIVE FILTERS 177(16)
9.1 Introduction 177(4)
9.2 DC Filters 181(1)
9.3 AC Filters 181(9)
9.3.1 Test System
9.3.2 Control Philosophy
9.3.3 Test Results
9.4 Concluding Remarks 190(1)
9.5 Acknowledgement 191(1)
9.6 References 191(2)
10. TYPICAL DISTURBANCES IN HVDC SYSTEMS 193(22)
10.1 Introduction 193(1)
10.2 CIGRE Benchmark Model for HVDC Control Studies 194(3)
10.3 Details of Control Systems Used 197(5)
10.3.1 Rectifier Control Unit
10.3.2 Inverter Control Unit
10.4 Results 202(12)
10.4.1 Controller Optimization Tests
10.4.2 Mode Shift Test
10.4.3 Single-Phase 1-Cycle Fault at the Inverter (Single Commutation Failures)
10.4.4 Single-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Inverter (Multiple Commutation Failures)
10.4.5 3-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Inverter
10.4.6 1-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Rectifier
10.4.7 3-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Rectifier
10.4.8 DC Line Fault at the Rectifier Side
10.4.9 DC Line Fault at the Inverter Side
10.5 Closing Remarks 214(1)
10.6 Acknowledgement 214(1)
10.7 References 214(1)
11. ADVANCED CONTROLLERS 215(16)
11.1 Introduction 215(1)
11.2 Application of an Advanced VDCL Unit 216(13)
11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Fuzzy Inference
11.2.3 Structure of RBF NN
11.2.4 Methodology
11.2.5 HVDC System Considered for the Study
11.2.6 Results and Discussions
11.3 Conclusions 229(1)
11.4 Acknowledgement 229(1)
11.5 References 229(2)
12. MEASUREMENT/MONITORING ASPECTS 231(6)
12.1 Introduction 231(1)
12.2 Monitoring of Signals 231(2)
12.3 Protection Against Over-currents 233(2)
12.4 Protection Against Over-voltages 235(1)
12.5 Acknowledgement 236(1)
12.6 References 236(1)
13. CASE STUDIES OF AC-DC SYSTEM INTERACTIONS 237(16)
13.1 Introduction 237(1)
13.2 AC-DC system inter-actions 237(2)
13.2.1 System Aspects
13.2.2 DC Controller Aspects
13.3 Multi-terminal HVDC systems 239(9)
13.3.1 Remote 3 Phase Fault At Rectifier 1
13.3.2 Commutation Failure At The Small Inverter 2
13.4 Harmonic inter-actions at Chandrapur HVDC station 248(3)
13.5 Conclusions 251(1)
13.6 Acknowledgement 251(1)
13.7 References 251(2)
14. SIMULATORS FOR ANALYZES OF POWER SYSTEM PHENOMENA 253(22)
14.1 Introduction 253(1)
14.2 The IREQ Hybrid Simulator 254(4)
14.2.1 Modelling Techniques
14.3 Off-line Digital Simulation Packages 258(7)
14.3.1 EMTP
14.3.2 EMTDC/PSCAD
14.4 Real-time Digital Simulators 265(7)
14.4.1 Methodology
14.4.2 Hardware Considerations
14.4.3 Software Considerations
14.4.4 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
14.4.5 Validation of Real-time Digital Simulators
14.4.6 Hardware Implementations
14.5 Present and Future Trends 272(1)
14.6 Acknowledgement 273(1)
14.7 References 273(2)
15. MODERN HVDC - STATE OF THE ART 275(16)
15.1 Introduction 275(1)
15.2 Past Decade Version 275(1)
15.3 Present Decade Version 276(13)
15.3.1 Thyristor Valves
15.3.2 Self-commutated Valves
15.3.3 Active Filters
15.3.4 Tunable AC Filter
15.3.5 AC-DC Measurements
15.3.6 DSP Controllers
15.3.7 Compact Station Design
15.3.8 Deep Hole Ground Electrode
15.4 Concluding Remarks 289(1)
15.5 Acknowledgement 290(1)
15.6 References 290(1)
INDEX 291(6)
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 297
Preface xvii
Acronyms xxi
1. INTRODUCTION TO HVDC TRANSMISSION 1(14)
1.1 Introduction 1(4)
1.2 Comparison of AC-DC Transmission 5(7)
1.2.1 Evaluation of Transmission Cost
1.2.2 Evaluation of Technical Consideration
1.2.3 Evaluation of Reliability and Availability Costs
1.2.4 Applications of dc Transmission
1.3 Types of HVDC Systems 12(1)
1.3.1 Monopolar Link
1.3.2 Bipolar Link
1.3.3 Homopolar ink
1.4 References 13(2)
2. TYPES OF CONVERTERS 15(24)
2.1 Introduction 15(2)
2.2 Current Source Converters (CSC) 17(9)
2.2.1 Case with no overlap period
2.2.2 Case with overlap period less than 60 degrees
2.3 Voltage Source Converters (VSC) 26(12)
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Control of the DC Capacitor Voltage
2.3.3 VSC with AC Current Control
2.3.4 VSC with AC Voltage Control
2.4 Closing Remarks 38(1)
2.5 References 38(1)
3. SYNCHRONIZATION TECHNIQUES FOR POWER CONVERTERS 39(28)
3.1 Introduction 39(1)
3.2 Review of GFUs 40(2)
3.2.1 Individual Phase Control (IPC) Unit
3.2.2 Equi-Distant Pulse Control (EPC) Unit
3.3 GFUs - Design And Analysis 42(8)
3.3.1 Conventional GFU
3.3.2 DQO GFU
3.3.3 Comparison
3.4 Tests On GFUs 50(4)
3.4.1 Loss of Synchronization Voltage
3.4.2 Harmonic Distortion Test
3.5 EMTP Simulation Of A Test System 54(11)
3.5.1 Start-up Of System Model
3.5.2 10% Step Change In Current Order
3.5.3 Single Phase Fault
3.5.4 DC Line Fault
3.6 Conclusions 65(1)
3.7 Acknowledgement 65(1)
3.8 References 65(2)
4. HVDC CONTROLS 67(28)
4.1 Historical Background 67(2)
4.2 Functions of HVDC Controls 69(2)
4.3 Control Basics for a Two-terminal DC Link 71(4)
4.4 Current Margin Control Method 75(5)
4.4.1 Rectifier Mode of Operation
4.4.2 Inverter Mode of Operation
4.5 Current Control at the Rectifier 80(2)
4.6 Inverter Extinction Angle Control 82(5)
4.6.1 Measurement of Gamma - Approach 1
4.6.2 Prediction of Gamma - Approach 2
4.7 Hierarchy of Controls 87(5)
4.7.1 Bipole Controller (Figure 4-14)
4.7.2 Pole Controller (Figure 4-15)
4.7.3 Valve Group Controller (Figure 4-16)
4.8 Action By Controls After a Disturbance 92(1)
4.9 References 93(2)
5. FORCED COMMUTATED HVDC CONVERTERS 95(22)
5.1 Introduction 95(1)
5.2 Commutation Techniques for HVDC Converters 96(12)
5.2.1 Definition of Commutation
5.2.2 Line (or Natural) Commutation
5.2.3 Circuit Commutation
5.2.4 Series Capacitor Circuit
5.2.5 Self-Commutation
5.2.6 Voltage Source Converters
5.2.7 Regions of Converter Operation
5.3 Examples of FC Converters for HVDC Transmission 108(6)
5.3.1 Circuit-Commutated Converters
5.3.2 Self-Commutated Converters
5.4 References 114(3)
6. CAPACITOR COMMUTATED CONVERTERS FOR HVDC SYSTEMS 117(22)
6.1 Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC) 117(4)
6.1.1 Reactive Power Management
6.1.2 Thyristor Valve Modules
6.2 Controlled Series Capacitor Converter (CSCC) 121(1)
6.3 Comparison of CCC and CSCC 121(8)
6.3.1 Steady State Performance
6.3.2 Transient Performance
6.4 Garabi Interconnection between Argentina-Brazil 129(8)
6.4.1 Valve Stresses
6.4.2 AC Switchyard
6.4.3 AC Filters
6.4.4 Thyristor Valves Modules
6.4.5 Modular Design Benefits
6.5 Closing Remarks 137(1)
6.6 Acknowledgement 137(1)
6.7 References 137(2)
7. STATIC COMPENSATORS: STATCOM BASED ON CHAIN-LINK CONVERTERS 139(12)
7.1 Introduction 139(4)
7.1.1 Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
7.2 The Chainlink Converter 143(4)
7.2.1 Chain Link Ratings
7.2.2 Losses
7.3 Advantages of the Chain Circuit STATCOM 147(1)
7.4 Design for Production 148(1)
7.5 Acknowledgement 149(1)
7.6 References 149(2)
8. HVDC SYSTEMS USING VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTERS 151(26)
8.1 Introduction 151(1)
8.2 Basic Elements of HVDC using VSCs 152(2)
8.2.1 Voltage Source Converters
8.2.2 The XLPE Cables
8.3 Voltage Source Converter 154(7)
8.3.1 Operating Principles of a VSC
8.3.2 Design Considerations
8.4 Applications 161(5)
8.4.1 In Environmentally Sensitive Locations, i.e. City Centres
8.4.2 Infeeds of Small Scale Renewable
8.4.3 Power From Wind Farms
8.4.4 Increasing Capacity on Existing RoW
8.4.5 Improved Reliability of City Centres
8.5 Tjaereborg Windpower Project in Denmark 166(4)
8.5.1 Description of the Project
8.5.2 Main Data
8.5.3 Operational Regime of the VSC
8.5.4 Power Quality
8.5.5 Control System
8.5.6 DC Cable
8.5.7 Building
8.5.8 Performed Tests on Site
8.5.9 Advantages
8.6 Power Supply to Remote Locations (i.e. Islands) 170(2)
8.6.1 The Gotland Island System
8.7 Asynchronous Inter-Connections 172(4)
8.7.1 Directlink Project - New South Wales and Queensland
8.7.2 Main System Components
8.7.3 Control System
8.8 Concluding Remarks 176(1)
8.9 Acknowledgement 176(1)
8.10 References 176(1)
9. ACTIVE FILTERS 177(16)
9.1 Introduction 177(4)
9.2 DC Filters 181(1)
9.3 AC Filters 181(9)
9.3.1 Test System
9.3.2 Control Philosophy
9.3.3 Test Results
9.4 Concluding Remarks 190(1)
9.5 Acknowledgement 191(1)
9.6 References 191(2)
10. TYPICAL DISTURBANCES IN HVDC SYSTEMS 193(22)
10.1 Introduction 193(1)
10.2 CIGRE Benchmark Model for HVDC Control Studies 194(3)
10.3 Details of Control Systems Used 197(5)
10.3.1 Rectifier Control Unit
10.3.2 Inverter Control Unit
10.4 Results 202(12)
10.4.1 Controller Optimization Tests
10.4.2 Mode Shift Test
10.4.3 Single-Phase 1-Cycle Fault at the Inverter (Single Commutation Failures)
10.4.4 Single-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Inverter (Multiple Commutation Failures)
10.4.5 3-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Inverter
10.4.6 1-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Rectifier
10.4.7 3-Phase 5-Cycle Fault at the Rectifier
10.4.8 DC Line Fault at the Rectifier Side
10.4.9 DC Line Fault at the Inverter Side
10.5 Closing Remarks 214(1)
10.6 Acknowledgement 214(1)
10.7 References 214(1)
11. ADVANCED CONTROLLERS 215(16)
11.1 Introduction 215(1)
11.2 Application of an Advanced VDCL Unit 216(13)
11.2.1 Introduction
11.2.2 Fuzzy Inference
11.2.3 Structure of RBF NN
11.2.4 Methodology
11.2.5 HVDC System Considered for the Study
11.2.6 Results and Discussions
11.3 Conclusions 229(1)
11.4 Acknowledgement 229(1)
11.5 References 229(2)
12. MEASUREMENT/MONITORING ASPECTS 231(6)
12.1 Introduction 231(1)
12.2 Monitoring of Signals 231(2)
12.3 Protection Against Over-currents 233(2)
12.4 Protection Against Over-voltages 235(1)
12.5 Acknowledgement 236(1)
12.6 References 236(1)
13. CASE STUDIES OF AC-DC SYSTEM INTERACTIONS 237(16)
13.1 Introduction 237(1)
13.2 AC-DC system inter-actions 237(2)
13.2.1 System Aspects
13.2.2 DC Controller Aspects
13.3 Multi-terminal HVDC systems 239(9)
13.3.1 Remote 3 Phase Fault At Rectifier 1
13.3.2 Commutation Failure At The Small Inverter 2
13.4 Harmonic inter-actions at Chandrapur HVDC station 248(3)
13.5 Conclusions 251(1)
13.6 Acknowledgement 251(1)
13.7 References 251(2)
14. SIMULATORS FOR ANALYZES OF POWER SYSTEM PHENOMENA 253(22)
14.1 Introduction 253(1)
14.2 The IREQ Hybrid Simulator 254(4)
14.2.1 Modelling Techniques
14.3 Off-line Digital Simulation Packages 258(7)
14.3.1 EMTP
14.3.2 EMTDC/PSCAD
14.4 Real-time Digital Simulators 265(7)
14.4.1 Methodology
14.4.2 Hardware Considerations
14.4.3 Software Considerations
14.4.4 Graphical User Interface (GUI)
14.4.5 Validation of Real-time Digital Simulators
14.4.6 Hardware Implementations
14.5 Present and Future Trends 272(1)
14.6 Acknowledgement 273(1)
14.7 References 273(2)
15. MODERN HVDC - STATE OF THE ART 275(16)
15.1 Introduction 275(1)
15.2 Past Decade Version 275(1)
15.3 Present Decade Version 276(13)
15.3.1 Thyristor Valves
15.3.2 Self-commutated Valves
15.3.3 Active Filters
15.3.4 Tunable AC Filter
15.3.5 AC-DC Measurements
15.3.6 DSP Controllers
15.3.7 Compact Station Design
15.3.8 Deep Hole Ground Electrode
15.4 Concluding Remarks 289(1)
15.5 Acknowledgement 290(1)
15.6 References 290(1)
INDEX 291(6)
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 297
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