简介
Geomatics, the handling and processing of information and data about the Earth, is one geoscience discipline that has seen major changes in the last decade, as mapping and observation systems become ever more sensitive and sophisticated. This book is a unique and in-depth survey of the field, which has a central role to play in tackling a host of environmental issues faced by society. Covering all three strands of geomatics - applications, information technology and surveying - the chapters cover the history and background of the subject, the technology employed both to collect and disseminate data, and the varied applications to which geomatics can be put, including urban planning, assessment of biodiversity, disaster management and land administration. Relevant professionals, as well as students in a variety of disciplines such as geography and surveying, will find this book required reading. This rapidly developing field uses increasingly complex and accurate systems. Today, technology enables us to capture geo-data in full 3D as well as to disseminate it via the Web at the speed of light. We are able to continuously image the world from space at resolutions of up to 50 cm. Airborne LiDAR (laser surveying) sensors can be combined with digital camera technology to produce geometrically correct images of the Earth's surface, while integrating these with large-scale topographic maps and terrestrial as well as aerial images to produce 3D cityscapes that computer users can explore from their desktops. The author of this book, Mathias J.P.M. Lemmens, has thirty years of research and teaching experience in the field of geodesy, photogrammetry, remote sensing, Lidar technology and land surveying gained at Delft University of聽Technology, the Netherlands, and other institutions. He operates as an international consultant focused on emerging and developing countries. As Editor of the worldwide geomatics magazine GIM International since 1998 he brings numerous state-of-the art technologies and applications to a broad audience of professionals through highly valued feature articles, product surveys, interviews and columns.
目录
Preface 5
Acknowledgements 9
Contents 10
List of Abbreviations 17
1 Geo-information Technology -- What It Is, How It Was and Where It Is Heading to 20
1.1 Land Surveying 20
1.1.1 Famous Land Surveyors 20
1.1.2 What, Where, When 21
1.1.3 Triangulation 24
1.1.4 Electronic Distance Measurement 27
1.2 Technological and Societal Developments 30
1.3 Geomatics 31
1.4 Geodesy 32
1.4.1 Definition and Focus 32
1.4.2 Geodetic Coordinates 34
1.4.3 Height Reference System 34
1.4.4 Coordinate Awareness 37
1.5 Changing Needs 38
1.6 Concluding Remarks 39
References 40
2 Earth Viewers 42
2.1 Map-Based Searching 43
2.2 Used by the Millions 44
2.3 Characteristics 44
2.4 Used by Professionals 45
2.5 Communication Tool with Citizens 48
2.6 Getting Geographically Aware 49
2.7 Bing Maps: Microsoft's Virtual Earth Viewer 50
2.8 Concluding Remarks 51
References 52
3 Understanding Earth-Related Phenomena Through Maps 53
3.1 Tabulating Versus Mapping 54
3.2 Medical Mapping 54
3.3 Geological Mapping 58
3.4 From Paper to Bytes 60
3.4.1 GIS 61
3.4.2 Essential Data 63
3.4.3 Analysis 63
3.5 Web-Based GIS 64
3.5.1 Architecture and Applications 65
3.5.2 Web 2.0 65
3.5.3 Volunteered Geography 66
3.5.4 Geosensor Web 67
3.6 Summary and Further Reading 68
References 69
4 Global Navigation Satellite Systems and Inertial Navigation 72
4.1 Overview 73
4.2 Basics 75
4.3 Achieving High Accuracy 77
4.4 Selective Availability 79
4.5 GPS Modernisation 81
4.6 Multipath 81
4.7 GNSS Infrastructure 83
4.8 Improving Accuracy 86
4.9 Geodetic Precision 89
4.10 Atomic Clocks 90
4.11 Monitoring Space Segment 90
4.12 GLONASS 91
4.13 Galileo 92
4.14 Beidou 94
4.15 Co-operation Among System Providers 96
4.16 Inertial Navigation 96
4.17 Trends 98
References 99
5 Mobile GIS and Location-Based Services 101
5.1 Background 101
5.2 Mobile GIS 103
5.2.1 Three Domains 105
5.2.2 Wireless 106
5.2.3 Accuracy 106
5.2.4 Operational Features 107
5.2.5 Peripherals 108
5.2.6 Data Quality and Performance 108
5.2.7 Professional Applications 109
5.2.8 Scientific Applications 111
5.3 Location-Based Services 112
References 115
6 Terrestrial Laser Scanning 117
6.1 Basics of Laser 119
6.2 Measurement Principles 120
6.2.1 Time-of-Flight Versus Phase-Shift 121
6.2.2 Range 122
6.2.3 TLS as a Surveying Instrument 122
6.3 Processing Software 124
6.4 Comparison with Total Stations 124
6.4.1 Measurement Principles and Precision 124
6.4.2 Blind Sampling 125
6.4.3 Time-Efficiency 125
6.5 Comparison with Terrestrial Photogrammetry 126
6.6 Integration with Digital Cameras 127
6.7 Scene Monitoring 128
6.7.1 Intervening Objects 128
6.7.2 Placing Markers 130
6.8 Applications 131
6.8.1 3D City Modelling 131
6.8.2 Traffic Accidents and Road Safety 131
6.8.3 Deformation and Heritage 132
6.8.4 Other Applications 132
6.9 Mobile Mapping 133
References 136
7 Photogrammetry: Geometric Data from Imagery 138
7.1 From Analogue to Digital 138
7.2 Basics 143
7.3 Stereoscopic Viewing 147
7.4 Aerotriangulation 149
7.5 Image-Matching Techniques 149
7.6 Scale and Orthoimages 152
7.7 Digital Photogrammetric Workstations 154
7.8 Digital Aerial Cameras 156
7.9 Oblique Aerial Imagery 157
7.10 Aerial Photogrammetry in Practice 161
7.11 UAV Photogrammetry 163
References 164
8 Airborne Lidar 167
8.1 Overview 169
8.2 Basics 170
8.3 Pulse Characteristics 171
8.4 Multiple Pulses in Air 175
8.5 Data Handling 176
8.5.1 Interpolation 176
8.5.2 Ground Filtering 178
8.5.3 Manual Editing 179
8.5.4 Deriving Parameters 180
8.6 Manufacturers 180
8.7 Applications 181
8.8 Concluding Remarks 182
References 182
9 Earth Observation from Space 185
9.1 Remote Sensing 185
9.2 Earth Observation Systems 186
9.2.1 Overview of Systems 186
9.2.2 GeoEye-1 and Ikonos 188
9.2.3 WorldView-1 and 2 190
9.2.4 Cartosat 191
9.2.5 Daichi 191
9.2.6 EROS 192
9.2.7 Radar Satellites 192
9.3 Processing of Satellite Images 196
9.3.1 Image Enhancement 196
9.3.2 Pan-sharpening 196
9.3.3 Radiometric Rectification 197
9.3.4 Geometric Rectification 198
9.4 Stereo Images 199
9.5 Information Extraction 199
9.6 Change Detection 204
9.7 Applications 205
9.8 Commercialisation 208
References 208
10 Modelling and Exchanging Geo-information 211
10.1 Unified Modelling Language 211
10.2 Open Source Software 217
10.3 Exchanging Geo-data over the Web 220
10.3.1 GML 221
10.3.2 KML 222
10.3.3 GDF 222
10.3.4 AJAX 222
References 223
11 Quality of Geo-information 225
11.1 Basics 225
11.2 Surveyor's Perspective 226
11.3 Random, Systematic and Blunder 227
11.4 Error Propagation 228
11.5 Least Squares Adjustment 229
11.6 GIS User's Perspective 231
11.6.1 Positional Accuracy 231
11.6.2 Temporal Accuracy 232
11.6.3 Thematic Accuracy 232
11.6.4 Completeness 232
11.6.5 Consistency 232
11.6.6 Resolution 233
11.7 Quality Assessment 235
11.7.1 Nominal Scale Data 235
11.7.2 Interval Scale Data 236
11.8 Quality Control 238
11.9 Concluding Remarks 240
References 240
12 Applying Geo-information Technology 242
12.1 Management of the Environment 242
12.1.1 Alternative Planning Scenarios 243
12.1.2 Monitoring 243
12.1.3 Changing Habits 244
12.1.4 Crisp Boundaries 245
12.2 Urban Planning 246
12.2.1 Eskisehir 247
12.2.2 Heritage Site Under Threat 249
12.2.3 Lungs of the City 250
12.3 Recreating the Past 251
12.4 3D City Models 256
12.4.1 Level of Detail 256
12.4.2 Manual Editing 258
12.4.3 Examples 259
12.4.4 Use of 3D City Models 260
12.5 Weed Control from Space 262
12.6 Biodiversity Monitoring 263
12.6.1 Nature Conservation in Nepal 263
12.6.2 Mangrove Monitoring in Bengal 264
12.6.3 Monitoring Fish Habitat in Washington State, USA 265
12.6.4 Wetland Conservation 265
12.7 Access to Geo-data for Citizens and Tourists 267
12.8 Forest Biomass Mapping 268
12.9 Renewable Energy 269
References 270
13 Census Taking 272
13.1 Methods 273
13.1.1 Virtual Census 274
13.1.2 De Facto Method 274
13.2 Enumeration Area Demarcation 276
13.3 Satellite Images 278
13.4 How Many Are We? 281
13.5 Lessons Learned 282
13.6 Population Estimation 283
13.6.1 Counting Houses 284
13.6.2 Land Use Zoning 284
13.6.3 Multispectral Classification 285
References 285
14 Risk and Disaster Management 287
14.1 Natural and Man-Made Disasters 288
14.2 Phases of Disaster Management 288
14.2.1 Recording 289
14.2.2 Risk Reduction 289
14.2.3 Readiness 290
14.2.4 Response 291
14.2.5 Recovery 292
14.3 Tsunami Early-Warning System 292
14.4 Petrol Station Vicinity Vulnerability Assessment 294
14.5 Fire Fighting 296
14.6 Flooding 296
14.7 Earthquake Monitoring 298
14.8 Disaster Management from Space 299
14.8.1 Sichuan May 2008 Earthquake 300
14.8.2 Haiti Earthquake 302
14.8.3 Conflicting Resolutions 303
14.8.4 Worldwide Collaboration 304
14.9 Base-Map 305
14.10 Concluding Remarks 306
References 306
15 Land Administration 308
15.1 Land: The Most Valuable Resource 309
15.2 Human's Relationship to Land 309
15.3 Value and Use 310
15.4 Recognition of Rights 311
15.5 Fundamental Right 312
15.6 Evidences of Right 313
15.7 Security of Land Rights 313
15.7.1 Why Security? 313
15.7.2 Transfer of Land Rights 314
15.7.3 Private Conveyance 316
15.7.4 Deeds Registration 316
15.7.5 Title Registration 317
15.8 Land Administration 318
15.9 Land Registration and Cadastres 319
15.10 Land Management 321
15.11 Adjudication 322
15.11.1 Sporadic and Systematic Adjudication 323
15.11.2 Mixed Strategy 323
15.11.3 Participatory GIS 324
15.12 The Parcel 325
15.13 Boundary Description 326
Boundary Description: Arnarbli, Grmsnes 326
15.14 Fixed and General Boundaries 327
15.15 Geometric Boundary Surveys 329
15.16 Data Capturing Techniques 330
15.17 Land Policy 333
15.18 3D Cadastres 334
15.19 Core Cadastral Domain Model 336
15.20 Land Administration and the Battle Against Poverty 338
15.20.1 Millennium Development Goals 338
15.20.2 Lack of Data 340
15.20.3 Economic Apartheid 341
15.20.4 Land as Collateral 342
15.20.5 'Aid Should Continue' 343
15.21 Future 345
References 348
Name Index 350
Subject Index 352
Acknowledgements 9
Contents 10
List of Abbreviations 17
1 Geo-information Technology -- What It Is, How It Was and Where It Is Heading to 20
1.1 Land Surveying 20
1.1.1 Famous Land Surveyors 20
1.1.2 What, Where, When 21
1.1.3 Triangulation 24
1.1.4 Electronic Distance Measurement 27
1.2 Technological and Societal Developments 30
1.3 Geomatics 31
1.4 Geodesy 32
1.4.1 Definition and Focus 32
1.4.2 Geodetic Coordinates 34
1.4.3 Height Reference System 34
1.4.4 Coordinate Awareness 37
1.5 Changing Needs 38
1.6 Concluding Remarks 39
References 40
2 Earth Viewers 42
2.1 Map-Based Searching 43
2.2 Used by the Millions 44
2.3 Characteristics 44
2.4 Used by Professionals 45
2.5 Communication Tool with Citizens 48
2.6 Getting Geographically Aware 49
2.7 Bing Maps: Microsoft's Virtual Earth Viewer 50
2.8 Concluding Remarks 51
References 52
3 Understanding Earth-Related Phenomena Through Maps 53
3.1 Tabulating Versus Mapping 54
3.2 Medical Mapping 54
3.3 Geological Mapping 58
3.4 From Paper to Bytes 60
3.4.1 GIS 61
3.4.2 Essential Data 63
3.4.3 Analysis 63
3.5 Web-Based GIS 64
3.5.1 Architecture and Applications 65
3.5.2 Web 2.0 65
3.5.3 Volunteered Geography 66
3.5.4 Geosensor Web 67
3.6 Summary and Further Reading 68
References 69
4 Global Navigation Satellite Systems and Inertial Navigation 72
4.1 Overview 73
4.2 Basics 75
4.3 Achieving High Accuracy 77
4.4 Selective Availability 79
4.5 GPS Modernisation 81
4.6 Multipath 81
4.7 GNSS Infrastructure 83
4.8 Improving Accuracy 86
4.9 Geodetic Precision 89
4.10 Atomic Clocks 90
4.11 Monitoring Space Segment 90
4.12 GLONASS 91
4.13 Galileo 92
4.14 Beidou 94
4.15 Co-operation Among System Providers 96
4.16 Inertial Navigation 96
4.17 Trends 98
References 99
5 Mobile GIS and Location-Based Services 101
5.1 Background 101
5.2 Mobile GIS 103
5.2.1 Three Domains 105
5.2.2 Wireless 106
5.2.3 Accuracy 106
5.2.4 Operational Features 107
5.2.5 Peripherals 108
5.2.6 Data Quality and Performance 108
5.2.7 Professional Applications 109
5.2.8 Scientific Applications 111
5.3 Location-Based Services 112
References 115
6 Terrestrial Laser Scanning 117
6.1 Basics of Laser 119
6.2 Measurement Principles 120
6.2.1 Time-of-Flight Versus Phase-Shift 121
6.2.2 Range 122
6.2.3 TLS as a Surveying Instrument 122
6.3 Processing Software 124
6.4 Comparison with Total Stations 124
6.4.1 Measurement Principles and Precision 124
6.4.2 Blind Sampling 125
6.4.3 Time-Efficiency 125
6.5 Comparison with Terrestrial Photogrammetry 126
6.6 Integration with Digital Cameras 127
6.7 Scene Monitoring 128
6.7.1 Intervening Objects 128
6.7.2 Placing Markers 130
6.8 Applications 131
6.8.1 3D City Modelling 131
6.8.2 Traffic Accidents and Road Safety 131
6.8.3 Deformation and Heritage 132
6.8.4 Other Applications 132
6.9 Mobile Mapping 133
References 136
7 Photogrammetry: Geometric Data from Imagery 138
7.1 From Analogue to Digital 138
7.2 Basics 143
7.3 Stereoscopic Viewing 147
7.4 Aerotriangulation 149
7.5 Image-Matching Techniques 149
7.6 Scale and Orthoimages 152
7.7 Digital Photogrammetric Workstations 154
7.8 Digital Aerial Cameras 156
7.9 Oblique Aerial Imagery 157
7.10 Aerial Photogrammetry in Practice 161
7.11 UAV Photogrammetry 163
References 164
8 Airborne Lidar 167
8.1 Overview 169
8.2 Basics 170
8.3 Pulse Characteristics 171
8.4 Multiple Pulses in Air 175
8.5 Data Handling 176
8.5.1 Interpolation 176
8.5.2 Ground Filtering 178
8.5.3 Manual Editing 179
8.5.4 Deriving Parameters 180
8.6 Manufacturers 180
8.7 Applications 181
8.8 Concluding Remarks 182
References 182
9 Earth Observation from Space 185
9.1 Remote Sensing 185
9.2 Earth Observation Systems 186
9.2.1 Overview of Systems 186
9.2.2 GeoEye-1 and Ikonos 188
9.2.3 WorldView-1 and 2 190
9.2.4 Cartosat 191
9.2.5 Daichi 191
9.2.6 EROS 192
9.2.7 Radar Satellites 192
9.3 Processing of Satellite Images 196
9.3.1 Image Enhancement 196
9.3.2 Pan-sharpening 196
9.3.3 Radiometric Rectification 197
9.3.4 Geometric Rectification 198
9.4 Stereo Images 199
9.5 Information Extraction 199
9.6 Change Detection 204
9.7 Applications 205
9.8 Commercialisation 208
References 208
10 Modelling and Exchanging Geo-information 211
10.1 Unified Modelling Language 211
10.2 Open Source Software 217
10.3 Exchanging Geo-data over the Web 220
10.3.1 GML 221
10.3.2 KML 222
10.3.3 GDF 222
10.3.4 AJAX 222
References 223
11 Quality of Geo-information 225
11.1 Basics 225
11.2 Surveyor's Perspective 226
11.3 Random, Systematic and Blunder 227
11.4 Error Propagation 228
11.5 Least Squares Adjustment 229
11.6 GIS User's Perspective 231
11.6.1 Positional Accuracy 231
11.6.2 Temporal Accuracy 232
11.6.3 Thematic Accuracy 232
11.6.4 Completeness 232
11.6.5 Consistency 232
11.6.6 Resolution 233
11.7 Quality Assessment 235
11.7.1 Nominal Scale Data 235
11.7.2 Interval Scale Data 236
11.8 Quality Control 238
11.9 Concluding Remarks 240
References 240
12 Applying Geo-information Technology 242
12.1 Management of the Environment 242
12.1.1 Alternative Planning Scenarios 243
12.1.2 Monitoring 243
12.1.3 Changing Habits 244
12.1.4 Crisp Boundaries 245
12.2 Urban Planning 246
12.2.1 Eskisehir 247
12.2.2 Heritage Site Under Threat 249
12.2.3 Lungs of the City 250
12.3 Recreating the Past 251
12.4 3D City Models 256
12.4.1 Level of Detail 256
12.4.2 Manual Editing 258
12.4.3 Examples 259
12.4.4 Use of 3D City Models 260
12.5 Weed Control from Space 262
12.6 Biodiversity Monitoring 263
12.6.1 Nature Conservation in Nepal 263
12.6.2 Mangrove Monitoring in Bengal 264
12.6.3 Monitoring Fish Habitat in Washington State, USA 265
12.6.4 Wetland Conservation 265
12.7 Access to Geo-data for Citizens and Tourists 267
12.8 Forest Biomass Mapping 268
12.9 Renewable Energy 269
References 270
13 Census Taking 272
13.1 Methods 273
13.1.1 Virtual Census 274
13.1.2 De Facto Method 274
13.2 Enumeration Area Demarcation 276
13.3 Satellite Images 278
13.4 How Many Are We? 281
13.5 Lessons Learned 282
13.6 Population Estimation 283
13.6.1 Counting Houses 284
13.6.2 Land Use Zoning 284
13.6.3 Multispectral Classification 285
References 285
14 Risk and Disaster Management 287
14.1 Natural and Man-Made Disasters 288
14.2 Phases of Disaster Management 288
14.2.1 Recording 289
14.2.2 Risk Reduction 289
14.2.3 Readiness 290
14.2.4 Response 291
14.2.5 Recovery 292
14.3 Tsunami Early-Warning System 292
14.4 Petrol Station Vicinity Vulnerability Assessment 294
14.5 Fire Fighting 296
14.6 Flooding 296
14.7 Earthquake Monitoring 298
14.8 Disaster Management from Space 299
14.8.1 Sichuan May 2008 Earthquake 300
14.8.2 Haiti Earthquake 302
14.8.3 Conflicting Resolutions 303
14.8.4 Worldwide Collaboration 304
14.9 Base-Map 305
14.10 Concluding Remarks 306
References 306
15 Land Administration 308
15.1 Land: The Most Valuable Resource 309
15.2 Human's Relationship to Land 309
15.3 Value and Use 310
15.4 Recognition of Rights 311
15.5 Fundamental Right 312
15.6 Evidences of Right 313
15.7 Security of Land Rights 313
15.7.1 Why Security? 313
15.7.2 Transfer of Land Rights 314
15.7.3 Private Conveyance 316
15.7.4 Deeds Registration 316
15.7.5 Title Registration 317
15.8 Land Administration 318
15.9 Land Registration and Cadastres 319
15.10 Land Management 321
15.11 Adjudication 322
15.11.1 Sporadic and Systematic Adjudication 323
15.11.2 Mixed Strategy 323
15.11.3 Participatory GIS 324
15.12 The Parcel 325
15.13 Boundary Description 326
Boundary Description: Arnarbli, Grmsnes 326
15.14 Fixed and General Boundaries 327
15.15 Geometric Boundary Surveys 329
15.16 Data Capturing Techniques 330
15.17 Land Policy 333
15.18 3D Cadastres 334
15.19 Core Cadastral Domain Model 336
15.20 Land Administration and the Battle Against Poverty 338
15.20.1 Millennium Development Goals 338
15.20.2 Lack of Data 340
15.20.3 Economic Apartheid 341
15.20.4 Land as Collateral 342
15.20.5 'Aid Should Continue' 343
15.21 Future 345
References 348
Name Index 350
Subject Index 352
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