简介
A major milestone in psychology has been the shift from concepts of sex, a strictly biological construct, to gender, with its range of biopsychosocial dimensions. Accordingly, recent years have seen gender research achieve marked improvements in methods, terminology, and breadth of content. The Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology brings these achievements into bold perspective by presenting both the current state of the field and an ambitious agenda for the future. Volume 1, Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology, gathers a wide variety of established and emerging voices across the range of specialties to offer the latest ideas, theories, and findings in gender as applied to both women and men (and where appropriate, boys and girls), including sexual minorities. In this volume, contributors critique strengths and limitations of current research, discuss methodological issues from recruiting participants to communicating results, and address cultural and other diversity considerations that have often been absent from the field. Their findings offer a fresh perspective, whether readers are involved in testing hypotheses, developing models, conducting experiments, or interpreting data. All chapters include recommendations for future avenues for research. Areas covered in Volume 1: The history of the psychology of women, men/masculinity, and sexual minorities Quantitative and qualitative research methods, including reviews of commonly used measures The brain and behavior: physiology and beyond Learning, education, and cognition, including academic, spatial, and creative abilities Written, oral, and nonverbal communication Emotion, motivation, and sexuality Gender roles and identity across the lifespan Psychologists, neuroscientists, gender researchers, and professors and graduate students in related fields will welcome Volume 1 of the Handbook of Gender Research in Psychology as refreshingly informative and eminently practical.
目录
Contents 5
Contributors 9
About the Editors 13
About the Contributors 15
1 Introduction 27
The Development of Gender Studies in Psychology 27
Methodological Issues 29
Purpose and Goals of this Handbook 30
Handbook Overview 31
Volume I: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology 32
History of Psychology 32
Research Methods 32
Brain and Behavior 33
Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 33
Communication 34
Emotion and Motivation 34
Lifespan Development 34
Volume II: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology 35
Personality Psychology 35
Abnormal and Clinical Psychology 35
Psychotherapy 36
Social Psychology 36
Industrial--Organizational Psychology 37
Health Psychology 37
Special Topics in Applied Psychology 38
Observations and Gaps 38
Conclusion 41
References 41
Part I History of Psychology 43
2 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Women 44
Psychology and/of Women: The First Wave 46
Psychology and/of Women at Mid-century 48
The Feminist Revolution in Psychology 51
Emergence of a Psychology for Women 51
Emergence of Feminist Practice 54
Epistemological Debates and Methodological Developments of the 1980s and 1990s 55
Feminist Empiricism 56
Feminist Standpoint Epistemologies 57
Feminist Postmodernism 57
Feminist Methods 58
Building a Multicultural Psychology of Women 59
Multicultural Psychology, Feminist Psychology, and Social Activism 60
Persistent Dilemmas and Future Directions 60
References 61
3 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 67
Historical Overview 67
Publications 68
Organizations 69
Conferences 70
Journals 71
Paradigms for Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity 72
Essentialist, Biological, and Evolutionary Paradigms 72
Gender Role Identity Paradigms 73
Gender Role Strain Paradigms 74
Beyond Essence, Identity, and Strain 75
Trends in Research on the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 75
Measurement of Masculinity 76
Men and Physical Health 77
Men and Mental Health 78
Conclusions and Recommendations 78
References 79
4 Emergence and Development of the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues 83
Terminology: Definitions and Discussion 83
Chapter Organization 84
First-Generation Literature: Pathologizing Homosexuality 85
Second-Generation Literature: The Psychological Adjustment Research 86
Third-Generation Literature: Identity, Diversity, and Descriptive Research 87
Gender Differences 87
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture 88
Bisexuality 89
Relationships, Families, and Parenting 90
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths 91
Sexual Prejudice and Heterosexism 92
Comments, Current Trends, and Future Directions 93
What Does It Take? A Brief History 93
Gender/Transgender Issues 94
Sexual Orientation 96
From Categories to Complexity: The Fourth Generation 96
References 97
Part II Research Methods 103
5 Quantitative Approaches to the Study of Gender 104
The Scientific Study of Gender 104
Validity Issues 106
Experimental Approaches to the Study of Gender 106
Nonexperimental Research 108
Longitudinal Designs and Statistical Control 109
Meta-analysis 111
Content Analysis 112
Research Approaches in Contemporary Gender Research 113
Relevant Theories 113
Gender and Power-Related Behaviors 113
Objectification Theory 114
Gender and Sexual Violence 114
Experiments 114
Nonexperimental Quantitative Methods 116
Longitudinal Studies 117
Meta-analysis 119
Content Analysis 120
Summary 120
Conclusion 121
References 121
6 Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Studies 125
What Are Qualitative Methods? 126
Central Characteristics of Qualitative Methods 126
Characteristics of Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Research that Have Challenged the Mainstream 126
Situated Knowledge 127
Value-Basis of Research 127
Researcher/Researched/Reader Relationship 128
Representation: Inclusivity and Its Limits 130
Reflexivity 131
Diverse Approaches to Qualitative Methods 131
Empiricist Perspective 132
Constructionist Perspective 132
Grounded Theory Approach to Doing Qualitative Research 133
Major Methods in the Qualitative Study of Gender 133
Case Study 133
Interviews 134
Focus Groups 135
Ethnography 136
Narrative Research 138
Contemporary Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 139
Discourse Analysis 139
Conversation Analysis 140
Developing Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 140
Action Research 140
Performance-Based Research 141
Future Directions in the Qualitative Study of Gender 143
Challenges for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 143
Gender/Women/Feminism/ and Qualitative Methods 143
Divergent Paths for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 144
References 145
7 Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 154
Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 154
Classes of Measures 155
Measures of Support for and Adherence to Cultural Gender Norms 155
Trait Measures 155
Ideology Measures 157
Gendered Behavior Measures 160
Gender Socialization 164
Measures of Gender Role Conflict and Gender Role Stress 165
Measures Related to the Relative Position of Men and Women in Society 167
Future Directions 170
Definitions of Gender, Masculinity, and Femininity 171
Psychometric and Methodological Concerns 171
Scale Age 172
Moving Forward 172
References 173
8 Cross-Cultural Research Methods and the Study of Gender 179
Describing Social Groups 180
Describing Cultural Elements 181
Psychological Universals 181
Three Psychological Approaches to the Study of Culture 182
Advantages of Cross-Cultural Research 183
Types of Cross-Cultural Research Designs 184
Sources of Cross-Cultural Data 187
Nature of Measurement Issues 189
Issues with Translation 190
Conclusion 193
References 193
9 Gender Diverse Recruitment to Research Projects 198
Types of Recruitment 199
Population-Based Recruitment 199
Purposive Recruitment 200
Convenience Sampling 200
How to Choose a Recruitment Strategy 200
A Model of Recruitment 201
Preparatory Stage 201
Contact Stage 202
Enrollment Stage 202
What Has Research Yielded for Diverse Recruitment? 203
Research Examples 203
Studies of Psychological Phenomena: The Psychology Department Subject Pool 203
Diversity in a Large Clinical Trial: The Women's Health Initiative 204
Specific Strategies for Enhancing Diversity in Recruitment 204
Recruitment Strategies for Sexual Minority Women: Insuring Diversity 205
Conclusions 207
References 207
10 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Gender-Related Research 210
Warning May Contain Spoilers 210
What Are Gender-Related Findings? 211
Should We Describe Gender-Related Findings? 212
Sex or Gender? 212
How Important Is Language to Thinking? 214
Category Norms, Explanation, and Generalization 215
Should We Undo the Effects of Category Norms? 216
Scientific Metaphors and Analogies 218
Future Directions 222
References 223
Part III Brain and Behavior 231
11 The Physiology of Sex Differences 232
Classification and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones 232
Development of Sex: The Fetus 233
Sex Differences in Behavior in Childhood 236
Sex Differences After Puberty: Adulthood 237
Role of Nonreproductive Hormones: Glucocorticoids 243
Conclusions and Future Directions 244
References 244
12 Sex and Gender in Sensation and Perception 251
Vision 251
Somatosensation 256
Audition and Vestibular Perception 259
The Chemical Senses 262
Conclusion and Future Directions 265
References 266
13 On Tending to Our Scientific Knitting: Thinking About Genderin the Context of Evolution 274
What Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition? 277
The Classic Literature 278
Object Location Memory 278
Navigation 279
Summary 280
Two Kinds of Evolutionary Explanations 280
Evaluating Man the Hunter, Woman the Gatherer 281
Evaluating the Man Who Gets Around 283
Overarching Issues 284
Would an Advantageous Trait with No Obvious Cost Be Sex-Specific? 284
How Does Hormonal Variation Fit EP Hypotheses? 285
Is Causation of Sex Differences the Right Question? 286
Conclusion: Prospects for an Empirically Rigorous Evolutionary Psychology 286
References 287
Part IV Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 290
14 Gender in the Classroom 291
The Gendered Structure of Education 291
The Gendered Classroom 293
Competing Explanations for Gender Differences in Educational Attainment 300
Future Directions 304
References 305
15 Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 310
Methodologies Used to Study Gender Similarities and Differences 310
Common Statistics Used in Gender Difference Research 311
The Complexity of Questions Concerning Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 313
Gender and Academic Abilities 313
Intelligence 313
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 314
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 314
Mathematical Ability 315
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 315
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 316
Aptitude Versus Grades 317
Verbal Ability 318
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 318
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 318
Summary of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 319
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 319
Gender and Academic Preferences 321
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Preferences 322
Implications of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Abilities and Preferences 324
Directions for Future Research 324
Effect Size Versus Practical Significance 324
Moving Beyond Girls and Mathematical Ability 324
Availability of Intervention 325
Gender Differences in Academic Preferences 325
Extend Gender Differences Research Cross-Nationally 326
Constellations of Abilities 326
References 326
16 Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 330
Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 330
Types of Spatial Abilities 331
Mental Rotation 331
Spatial Perception 332
Spatial Visualization 333
Object Location Memory 334
Dynamic Spatial Ability 335
Underlying Cognitive Processes 335
Spatial Strategies 335
Spatial Memory Processes 335
Biological Factors in Gender Differences in Spatial Ability 336
Hormonal Influences 336
Brain Organization 337
Evolutionary Explanations 338
Experiential and Sociocultural Factors 339
Spatial Experience 339
Sociocultural Differences 339
Stereotype Threat 340
Training Effects 340
Wayfinding 341
Conclusions and Future Directions 344
References 345
17 Gender and Creativity 355
Illustrative Cases of Creative Women 356
Creativity Criteria 358
Empirical Studies of Culture and Gender 359
Gender Differences in Divergent Thinking 361
Gender Differences in Personality Indicators 362
Androgyny and Cognitive Styles 364
Conclusions and Future Directions 365
References 367
Part V Communication 370
18 Words Matter: The Language of Gender 371
Sex or Gender? Whats the Difference? 373
Masculinity and Femininity 375
Language and Sexual Minorities 377
Advice from the APA Style Manual on Gender, Sexuality, and Ethnicity 379
Historical Overview of Revisions 379
Description of Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language 381
Evaluation of Compliance with Guidelines 382
Future Directions 383
References 384
19 She Said, He Said: Gender, Language, and Power 388
Difference as Deficit 389
Women's Style of Speaking 389
Research on Lakoff's Model 389
Critique of Lakoff's Model 390
Remediating Womens Deficits 391
Assertiveness Training 391
Research on Assertiveness Training 392
Negotiation: Another Deficit in Women's Communication? 392
Critique of Negotiations Deficit 393
The Two Cultures Approach 394
Miscommunication 394
You Just Don't Understand 395
Critique of the Miscommunication Models 395
Difference as Dominance 396
Gender and Inequality 396
Talking Time 397
Interruptions 398
Resisting and Derogating Women's Requests 400
Profanity 400
Verbal Harassment as Dominance 402
Womens Talk as Relational 402
Placing Value on Women's Talk 402
Minimal Responses 403
Small Talk 403
Gossip 404
What About Men's Deficiencies? 408
Directions for Future Research: Re-thinking Gender, Language, and Power 409
Importance of Context 410
Changing Conceptions of Gender 410
Gendered Language in Relation to Social Roles 411
Toward a Postmodern Perspective 411
Toward a Feminist Postmodern Approach to Gender and Language 412
Directions for Future Research 413
References 413
20 Gender, Power, and Nonverbal Behavior 420
Definition and Importance of Nonverbal Behavior 421
The Role of Nonverbal Behavior for Accurate Person Perception 421
Gender and Nonverbal Behavior 423
Power and Nonverbal Behavior 425
Nonverbal Expression of Power 425
Perception of Power Through Nonverbal Behavior 426
Power and Interpersonal Accuracy 426
Disentangling Gender and Power with Respect to Nonverbal Behavior 427
Gender as a Moderator of the Relation Between Power and Nonverbal Behavior 428
Summary and Future Directions 429
References 431
Part VI Emotion and Motivation 435
21 Gender, Emotion, and Socialization 436
Stereotypes and Display Rules 437
Nature of Emotional Stereotypes 437
Accuracy of Stereotypes 439
Emotion Regulation 439
Self-reported Emotion and Expression 441
Self-reports of General Emotional Experience and Expression 441
Self-reports of Specific Emotions 442
What Do Self-reports Measure? 443
Emotions Expressed in Behavioral Contexts 443
Facial Expressions and Other Nonverbal Behaviors 444
Nonverbal Decoding Skill 445
Emotional Competence 446
Relationship Specificity 446
Cultural Specificity 448
Physiological Arousal 449
Neural Substrates of Emotional Functioning 450
Etiology of Gender Differences 450
A Developmental Perspective 451
Putting Distal and Proximal Cues Together: The Example of Smiling 452
Concluding Thoughts and Future Research Directions 453
References 455
22 Sex and Gender Differences in Eating Behavior 462
Amount Eaten 463
Main Effects 463
Interactions 465
Food Preferences 469
Main Effects 469
Interactions 470
Hunger 471
Conclusions 472
Directions for Future Research 473
References 473
23 Gender Differences in Sexuality 477
Theories of Gender and Sexuality 477
Psychoanalytic Theory 477
Neo-analytic Theory 479
Evolutionary Psychology 479
Cognitive Social Learning Theory 480
Social Structural Theory 481
Gender Schema Theory 482
Summary of Theories 482
Research on Gender Differences in Sexual Behaviors 482
Meta-analytic Findings 482
Large Surveys 484
Other Sexual Behaviors 484
Gender Differences in Sexual Attitudes 485
Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Homosexuality 485
Gender Differences in Sexual Desire 486
Gender and Mate Selection and Retention 487
Explaining Gender Differences in Sexuality 487
Self-reports 487
Biological Factors 488
Socio-cultural Factors 490
Other Factors 491
Transgender 492
Future Direction 493
Conclusion 493
References 494
Part VII Lifespan Development 498
24 Gender Identity and Stereotyping in Early and Middle Childhood 499
Gender Identity 499
Definition 499
Multidimensionality 500
Individual Differences and Variation 502
Summary 503
Gender Stereotyping 503
Definition 504
Developmental Trajectory 504
Summary 506
Possible Antecedents of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 506
Cognitive Development 506
Perceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories 508
Conceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories and Labeling 508
Parent and Sociocultural Influences 508
Essentialism 510
Summary 511
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 511
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity 512
Possible Consequences of Gender Stereotyping 518
Summary 521
Future Directions 521
References 522
25 Gender in Adolescence: Applying a Person-in-Context Approachto Gender Identity and Roles 530
Global Identity Changes in Adolescence 531
Gender Identity Changes in Adolescence 532
The Gender Intensification Hypothesis 533
Person-in-Context Influences 535
Puberty 536
Family 539
Peers 540
Cross-Gender Interactions: Overcoming Gender Segregation and Developing Romantic Relationships 542
Culture/Media 544
Understanding the Role of Gender in the Development of Psychopathology 546
Depression and Other Internalizing Behaviors 546
Aggression and Other Externalizing Behaviors 548
Future Directions 551
References 553
26 Gender, Adult Development, and Aging 561
Gender and Personality in Adulthood 562
Erikson's Theory of Personality Development 562
Critiques of Gender in Erikson's Theory and Beyond 564
Critiques of Erikson's Developmental Theory 565
Critique: Culture, Sexual Orientation, and History in Erikson's Theory 567
Gender and the Aging Body and Mind 568
Gender and Aging Bodies 569
Gender and Aging Minds 570
Gender and Changes in Social Roles Across the Lifespan 572
Gender, Roles, and Well-Being 572
Changing Work and Family Roles 573
Conclusions and Future Directions for Research on Gender and Adulthood 575
References 577
Author Index 583
Subject Index 663
Contributors 9
About the Editors 13
About the Contributors 15
1 Introduction 27
The Development of Gender Studies in Psychology 27
Methodological Issues 29
Purpose and Goals of this Handbook 30
Handbook Overview 31
Volume I: Gender Research in General and Experimental Psychology 32
History of Psychology 32
Research Methods 32
Brain and Behavior 33
Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 33
Communication 34
Emotion and Motivation 34
Lifespan Development 34
Volume II: Gender Research in Social and Applied Psychology 35
Personality Psychology 35
Abnormal and Clinical Psychology 35
Psychotherapy 36
Social Psychology 36
Industrial--Organizational Psychology 37
Health Psychology 37
Special Topics in Applied Psychology 38
Observations and Gaps 38
Conclusion 41
References 41
Part I History of Psychology 43
2 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Women 44
Psychology and/of Women: The First Wave 46
Psychology and/of Women at Mid-century 48
The Feminist Revolution in Psychology 51
Emergence of a Psychology for Women 51
Emergence of Feminist Practice 54
Epistemological Debates and Methodological Developments of the 1980s and 1990s 55
Feminist Empiricism 56
Feminist Standpoint Epistemologies 57
Feminist Postmodernism 57
Feminist Methods 58
Building a Multicultural Psychology of Women 59
Multicultural Psychology, Feminist Psychology, and Social Activism 60
Persistent Dilemmas and Future Directions 60
References 61
3 Emergence and Development of the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 67
Historical Overview 67
Publications 68
Organizations 69
Conferences 70
Journals 71
Paradigms for Psychological Study of Men and Masculinity 72
Essentialist, Biological, and Evolutionary Paradigms 72
Gender Role Identity Paradigms 73
Gender Role Strain Paradigms 74
Beyond Essence, Identity, and Strain 75
Trends in Research on the Psychology of Men and Masculinity 75
Measurement of Masculinity 76
Men and Physical Health 77
Men and Mental Health 78
Conclusions and Recommendations 78
References 79
4 Emergence and Development of the Psychological Study of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues 83
Terminology: Definitions and Discussion 83
Chapter Organization 84
First-Generation Literature: Pathologizing Homosexuality 85
Second-Generation Literature: The Psychological Adjustment Research 86
Third-Generation Literature: Identity, Diversity, and Descriptive Research 87
Gender Differences 87
Race, Ethnicity, and Culture 88
Bisexuality 89
Relationships, Families, and Parenting 90
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths 91
Sexual Prejudice and Heterosexism 92
Comments, Current Trends, and Future Directions 93
What Does It Take? A Brief History 93
Gender/Transgender Issues 94
Sexual Orientation 96
From Categories to Complexity: The Fourth Generation 96
References 97
Part II Research Methods 103
5 Quantitative Approaches to the Study of Gender 104
The Scientific Study of Gender 104
Validity Issues 106
Experimental Approaches to the Study of Gender 106
Nonexperimental Research 108
Longitudinal Designs and Statistical Control 109
Meta-analysis 111
Content Analysis 112
Research Approaches in Contemporary Gender Research 113
Relevant Theories 113
Gender and Power-Related Behaviors 113
Objectification Theory 114
Gender and Sexual Violence 114
Experiments 114
Nonexperimental Quantitative Methods 116
Longitudinal Studies 117
Meta-analysis 119
Content Analysis 120
Summary 120
Conclusion 121
References 121
6 Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Studies 125
What Are Qualitative Methods? 126
Central Characteristics of Qualitative Methods 126
Characteristics of Qualitative Inquiry in Gender Research that Have Challenged the Mainstream 126
Situated Knowledge 127
Value-Basis of Research 127
Researcher/Researched/Reader Relationship 128
Representation: Inclusivity and Its Limits 130
Reflexivity 131
Diverse Approaches to Qualitative Methods 131
Empiricist Perspective 132
Constructionist Perspective 132
Grounded Theory Approach to Doing Qualitative Research 133
Major Methods in the Qualitative Study of Gender 133
Case Study 133
Interviews 134
Focus Groups 135
Ethnography 136
Narrative Research 138
Contemporary Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 139
Discourse Analysis 139
Conversation Analysis 140
Developing Forms of Qualitative Inquiry 140
Action Research 140
Performance-Based Research 141
Future Directions in the Qualitative Study of Gender 143
Challenges for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 143
Gender/Women/Feminism/ and Qualitative Methods 143
Divergent Paths for Qualitative Methods Within Gender Studies 144
References 145
7 Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 154
Measuring Gender: Options and Issues 154
Classes of Measures 155
Measures of Support for and Adherence to Cultural Gender Norms 155
Trait Measures 155
Ideology Measures 157
Gendered Behavior Measures 160
Gender Socialization 164
Measures of Gender Role Conflict and Gender Role Stress 165
Measures Related to the Relative Position of Men and Women in Society 167
Future Directions 170
Definitions of Gender, Masculinity, and Femininity 171
Psychometric and Methodological Concerns 171
Scale Age 172
Moving Forward 172
References 173
8 Cross-Cultural Research Methods and the Study of Gender 179
Describing Social Groups 180
Describing Cultural Elements 181
Psychological Universals 181
Three Psychological Approaches to the Study of Culture 182
Advantages of Cross-Cultural Research 183
Types of Cross-Cultural Research Designs 184
Sources of Cross-Cultural Data 187
Nature of Measurement Issues 189
Issues with Translation 190
Conclusion 193
References 193
9 Gender Diverse Recruitment to Research Projects 198
Types of Recruitment 199
Population-Based Recruitment 199
Purposive Recruitment 200
Convenience Sampling 200
How to Choose a Recruitment Strategy 200
A Model of Recruitment 201
Preparatory Stage 201
Contact Stage 202
Enrollment Stage 202
What Has Research Yielded for Diverse Recruitment? 203
Research Examples 203
Studies of Psychological Phenomena: The Psychology Department Subject Pool 203
Diversity in a Large Clinical Trial: The Women's Health Initiative 204
Specific Strategies for Enhancing Diversity in Recruitment 204
Recruitment Strategies for Sexual Minority Women: Insuring Diversity 205
Conclusions 207
References 207
10 Interpreting and Communicating the Results of Gender-Related Research 210
Warning May Contain Spoilers 210
What Are Gender-Related Findings? 211
Should We Describe Gender-Related Findings? 212
Sex or Gender? 212
How Important Is Language to Thinking? 214
Category Norms, Explanation, and Generalization 215
Should We Undo the Effects of Category Norms? 216
Scientific Metaphors and Analogies 218
Future Directions 222
References 223
Part III Brain and Behavior 231
11 The Physiology of Sex Differences 232
Classification and Synthesis of Steroid Hormones 232
Development of Sex: The Fetus 233
Sex Differences in Behavior in Childhood 236
Sex Differences After Puberty: Adulthood 237
Role of Nonreproductive Hormones: Glucocorticoids 243
Conclusions and Future Directions 244
References 244
12 Sex and Gender in Sensation and Perception 251
Vision 251
Somatosensation 256
Audition and Vestibular Perception 259
The Chemical Senses 262
Conclusion and Future Directions 265
References 266
13 On Tending to Our Scientific Knitting: Thinking About Genderin the Context of Evolution 274
What Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition? 277
The Classic Literature 278
Object Location Memory 278
Navigation 279
Summary 280
Two Kinds of Evolutionary Explanations 280
Evaluating Man the Hunter, Woman the Gatherer 281
Evaluating the Man Who Gets Around 283
Overarching Issues 284
Would an Advantageous Trait with No Obvious Cost Be Sex-Specific? 284
How Does Hormonal Variation Fit EP Hypotheses? 285
Is Causation of Sex Differences the Right Question? 286
Conclusion: Prospects for an Empirically Rigorous Evolutionary Psychology 286
References 287
Part IV Learning, Education, and Cognitive Processes 290
14 Gender in the Classroom 291
The Gendered Structure of Education 291
The Gendered Classroom 293
Competing Explanations for Gender Differences in Educational Attainment 300
Future Directions 304
References 305
15 Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 310
Methodologies Used to Study Gender Similarities and Differences 310
Common Statistics Used in Gender Difference Research 311
The Complexity of Questions Concerning Gender and Academic Abilities and Preferences 313
Gender and Academic Abilities 313
Intelligence 313
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 314
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 314
Mathematical Ability 315
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 315
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 316
Aptitude Versus Grades 317
Verbal Ability 318
Gender Similarities and Differences in Means 318
Gender Similarities and Differences in Variance 318
Summary of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 319
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Ability 319
Gender and Academic Preferences 321
Explanations for Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Preferences 322
Implications of Gender Similarities and Differences in Academic Abilities and Preferences 324
Directions for Future Research 324
Effect Size Versus Practical Significance 324
Moving Beyond Girls and Mathematical Ability 324
Availability of Intervention 325
Gender Differences in Academic Preferences 325
Extend Gender Differences Research Cross-Nationally 326
Constellations of Abilities 326
References 326
16 Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 330
Gender, Spatial Abilities, and Wayfinding 330
Types of Spatial Abilities 331
Mental Rotation 331
Spatial Perception 332
Spatial Visualization 333
Object Location Memory 334
Dynamic Spatial Ability 335
Underlying Cognitive Processes 335
Spatial Strategies 335
Spatial Memory Processes 335
Biological Factors in Gender Differences in Spatial Ability 336
Hormonal Influences 336
Brain Organization 337
Evolutionary Explanations 338
Experiential and Sociocultural Factors 339
Spatial Experience 339
Sociocultural Differences 339
Stereotype Threat 340
Training Effects 340
Wayfinding 341
Conclusions and Future Directions 344
References 345
17 Gender and Creativity 355
Illustrative Cases of Creative Women 356
Creativity Criteria 358
Empirical Studies of Culture and Gender 359
Gender Differences in Divergent Thinking 361
Gender Differences in Personality Indicators 362
Androgyny and Cognitive Styles 364
Conclusions and Future Directions 365
References 367
Part V Communication 370
18 Words Matter: The Language of Gender 371
Sex or Gender? Whats the Difference? 373
Masculinity and Femininity 375
Language and Sexual Minorities 377
Advice from the APA Style Manual on Gender, Sexuality, and Ethnicity 379
Historical Overview of Revisions 379
Description of Guidelines to Reduce Bias in Language 381
Evaluation of Compliance with Guidelines 382
Future Directions 383
References 384
19 She Said, He Said: Gender, Language, and Power 388
Difference as Deficit 389
Women's Style of Speaking 389
Research on Lakoff's Model 389
Critique of Lakoff's Model 390
Remediating Womens Deficits 391
Assertiveness Training 391
Research on Assertiveness Training 392
Negotiation: Another Deficit in Women's Communication? 392
Critique of Negotiations Deficit 393
The Two Cultures Approach 394
Miscommunication 394
You Just Don't Understand 395
Critique of the Miscommunication Models 395
Difference as Dominance 396
Gender and Inequality 396
Talking Time 397
Interruptions 398
Resisting and Derogating Women's Requests 400
Profanity 400
Verbal Harassment as Dominance 402
Womens Talk as Relational 402
Placing Value on Women's Talk 402
Minimal Responses 403
Small Talk 403
Gossip 404
What About Men's Deficiencies? 408
Directions for Future Research: Re-thinking Gender, Language, and Power 409
Importance of Context 410
Changing Conceptions of Gender 410
Gendered Language in Relation to Social Roles 411
Toward a Postmodern Perspective 411
Toward a Feminist Postmodern Approach to Gender and Language 412
Directions for Future Research 413
References 413
20 Gender, Power, and Nonverbal Behavior 420
Definition and Importance of Nonverbal Behavior 421
The Role of Nonverbal Behavior for Accurate Person Perception 421
Gender and Nonverbal Behavior 423
Power and Nonverbal Behavior 425
Nonverbal Expression of Power 425
Perception of Power Through Nonverbal Behavior 426
Power and Interpersonal Accuracy 426
Disentangling Gender and Power with Respect to Nonverbal Behavior 427
Gender as a Moderator of the Relation Between Power and Nonverbal Behavior 428
Summary and Future Directions 429
References 431
Part VI Emotion and Motivation 435
21 Gender, Emotion, and Socialization 436
Stereotypes and Display Rules 437
Nature of Emotional Stereotypes 437
Accuracy of Stereotypes 439
Emotion Regulation 439
Self-reported Emotion and Expression 441
Self-reports of General Emotional Experience and Expression 441
Self-reports of Specific Emotions 442
What Do Self-reports Measure? 443
Emotions Expressed in Behavioral Contexts 443
Facial Expressions and Other Nonverbal Behaviors 444
Nonverbal Decoding Skill 445
Emotional Competence 446
Relationship Specificity 446
Cultural Specificity 448
Physiological Arousal 449
Neural Substrates of Emotional Functioning 450
Etiology of Gender Differences 450
A Developmental Perspective 451
Putting Distal and Proximal Cues Together: The Example of Smiling 452
Concluding Thoughts and Future Research Directions 453
References 455
22 Sex and Gender Differences in Eating Behavior 462
Amount Eaten 463
Main Effects 463
Interactions 465
Food Preferences 469
Main Effects 469
Interactions 470
Hunger 471
Conclusions 472
Directions for Future Research 473
References 473
23 Gender Differences in Sexuality 477
Theories of Gender and Sexuality 477
Psychoanalytic Theory 477
Neo-analytic Theory 479
Evolutionary Psychology 479
Cognitive Social Learning Theory 480
Social Structural Theory 481
Gender Schema Theory 482
Summary of Theories 482
Research on Gender Differences in Sexual Behaviors 482
Meta-analytic Findings 482
Large Surveys 484
Other Sexual Behaviors 484
Gender Differences in Sexual Attitudes 485
Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Homosexuality 485
Gender Differences in Sexual Desire 486
Gender and Mate Selection and Retention 487
Explaining Gender Differences in Sexuality 487
Self-reports 487
Biological Factors 488
Socio-cultural Factors 490
Other Factors 491
Transgender 492
Future Direction 493
Conclusion 493
References 494
Part VII Lifespan Development 498
24 Gender Identity and Stereotyping in Early and Middle Childhood 499
Gender Identity 499
Definition 499
Multidimensionality 500
Individual Differences and Variation 502
Summary 503
Gender Stereotyping 503
Definition 504
Developmental Trajectory 504
Summary 506
Possible Antecedents of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 506
Cognitive Development 506
Perceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories 508
Conceptual Distinctions of Gender Categories and Labeling 508
Parent and Sociocultural Influences 508
Essentialism 510
Summary 511
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity and Stereotyping 511
Possible Consequences of Gender Identity 512
Possible Consequences of Gender Stereotyping 518
Summary 521
Future Directions 521
References 522
25 Gender in Adolescence: Applying a Person-in-Context Approachto Gender Identity and Roles 530
Global Identity Changes in Adolescence 531
Gender Identity Changes in Adolescence 532
The Gender Intensification Hypothesis 533
Person-in-Context Influences 535
Puberty 536
Family 539
Peers 540
Cross-Gender Interactions: Overcoming Gender Segregation and Developing Romantic Relationships 542
Culture/Media 544
Understanding the Role of Gender in the Development of Psychopathology 546
Depression and Other Internalizing Behaviors 546
Aggression and Other Externalizing Behaviors 548
Future Directions 551
References 553
26 Gender, Adult Development, and Aging 561
Gender and Personality in Adulthood 562
Erikson's Theory of Personality Development 562
Critiques of Gender in Erikson's Theory and Beyond 564
Critiques of Erikson's Developmental Theory 565
Critique: Culture, Sexual Orientation, and History in Erikson's Theory 567
Gender and the Aging Body and Mind 568
Gender and Aging Bodies 569
Gender and Aging Minds 570
Gender and Changes in Social Roles Across the Lifespan 572
Gender, Roles, and Well-Being 572
Changing Work and Family Roles 573
Conclusions and Future Directions for Research on Gender and Adulthood 575
References 577
Author Index 583
Subject Index 663
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