Anaesthetic and sedative techniques for aquatic animals / 3rd ed.

Contents 5
Preface to the Third Edition 11
Acknowledgements to the Third Edition 13
List of Contributors 15
1 Introduction 17
\u2018Comfort\u2019 and animal husbandry 17
Handling and mechanical damage 19
Pain 19
Summary 20
References 20
2 Defining Stress in Aquatic Animals 23
Introduction 23
The adrenergic system and the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013inter-renal axis 23
The generalised stress response 26
External signs of stress 26
Internal signs of stress 28
Effects on heart rate 28
Haematological effects 29
Hormonal effects 29
Acclimation to stressors 31
Stress reduction 33
Stress reduction during anaesthesia 34
Stress induced by anaesthesia 34
Summary 36
References 36
3 Pain in Aquatic Animals 39
Introduction 39
Defining pain 40
Nociception 41
The neurological basis of nociception 41
The central nervous system and pain perception 42
Nociception and pain perception in aquatic invertebrates 45
Nociception 45
Brain and central nervous system structure 45
Nociceptor to brain pathways 46
Opioids 47
Higher centres and learning 47
Nociception and pain perception in aquatic vertebrates 48
Nociception 48
Brain and central nervous system structure 49
Nociceptor to brain pathways 49
Opioids 50
Higher centres, learning and cognition 51
Suspension of normal behaviour 51
Summary 52
References 53
4 The Nature of Anaesthesia, Sedation and Analgesia 57
General anaesthesia and sedation 57
Local anaesthesia 58
Analgesia 59
The mechanism of anaesthesia 59
The stages of anaesthesia 61
Dose, exposure time and effect achieved 63
Euthanasia 65
Summary 66
References 66
5 The Features of Anaesthetic Agents 69
Introduction 69
Desirable features of an anaesthetic agent 69
Toxicity and margin of safety 70
Additives 72
Summary 72
References 72
6 Anaesthesia and Legislation 73
Introduction 73
Safe operator practice for users and safe storage of drugs and chemicals 74
Food chain safety 75
Environmental safety 77
Animal welfare and experimentation 77
Safety legislation concerning electric fishing and similar electrical apparatus 78
Summary 78
References 78
7 Factors Affecting the Response of Aquatic Ectotherms to Anaesthesia 81
Introduction 81
Biotic factors 81
Environmental or abiotic factors affecting efficacy anaesthesia 83
Summary 83
References 83
8 Anaesthesia of Fish: I. Inhalation Anaesthesia 85
Introduction 85
Water quality maintenance during inhalation anaesthesia 86
The basic procedure 87
Direct application to the gills 90
Artificially ventilated inhalation anaesthesia 91
Drugs used for inhalation anaesthesia 94
Widely used drugs for inhalation anaesthesia 94
MS222 94
Benzocaine 97
Clove oil 100
AQUI-S R 103
Quinaldine and quinaldine sulphate 105
2-Phenoxyethanol 107
Metomidate 109
Etomidate 112
Less widely used drugs for inhalation anaesthesia 114
4-Styrylpyridine 114
Barbiturates 116
Amylobarbitone 116
Quinalbarbitone 117
Pentothal 117
Chloral hydrate 119
Chlorbutanol 120
Chloroform 121
Diethyl ether 122
Lidocaine 123
Methyl pentynol 124
Piscaine 125
Propanidid 126
Propoxate 127
Sodium cyanide 128
Tertiary amyl alcohol (TAA) 129
Tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA) 130
Tribromoethanol (TBE) 130
Urethane 131
Inhalation anaesthesia using plant extracts 132
Summary 133
References 133
9 Anaesthesia of Fish: II. Inhalation Anaesthesia Using Gases 143
Introduction 143
Carbon dioxide 143
Carbon dioxide from sodium bicarbonate 145
Fluorinated hydrocarbons 147
Summary 149
References 149
10 Anaesthesia of Fish: III. Parenteral and Oral Anaesthesia 153
Introduction 153
Routes for administration of drugs by injection 153
Effective injectable anaesthetic drugs 154
Widely used drugs for injection anaesthesia 155
Alphaxolone\u2013alphadolone (Saffan) 156
Ketamine (Vetalar) 159
Nembutal (sodium pentobarbitone) 160
Propanidid (Epontol) 161
Less widely used drugs for injection anaesthesia 162
Etorphine\u2013acylpromazine (Immobilon) 162
Xylazine (Rompun) 163
Lignocaine (Xylocaine, Lidocaine ) 163
Procaine (Novocaine) 163
Oral anaesthesia: chemicals in food 164
Additives \u2013 again 164
Summary 164
References 165
11 Anaesthesia of Fish: IV. Non-Chemical Methods 167
Introduction 167
Hypothermia 167
Electroanaesthesia 169
Immobilisation using direct current (d.c.) 170
Basic galvonarcosis procedure 171
Immobilisation using alternating current (a.c.) 172
Basic method and protocol for electroanaesthesia 173
Construction features for an a.c. electroanaesthesia unit 175
Timers 176
Relays 177
Switches 177
Warning devices 177
Plugs and sockets 178
Case 178
The physiological effects of electroanaesthesia 178
Analgesia during a.c. electroanaesthesia 179
Pulsed white noise 179
Summary 180
References 180
12 Anaesthesia of Aquatic Invertebrates 183
Introduction 183
Anaesthesia of molluscs 183
General techniques 183
Bivalves 184
Gastropods 185
Cephalopods 186
Anaesthesia of crustaceans 187
General techniques 187
Branchiopods 188
Stomatopods 189
Amphipods 189
Decapods 189
Summary 192
References 192
13 Anaesthesia of Amphibians and Reptiles 195
Introduction 195
Amphibians 195
General precautions 195
Tropical anaesthesia 196
Gaseous inhalation anaesthesia 197
Immersion techniques 197
Injectable drugs 198
Hypothermia 199
Reptiles 200
Crocodilians 200
General precautions 200
Local anaesthesia 200
Oral administration 201
Injectable drugs 201
Turtles 202
General precautions 202
Oral or rectal anaesthesia 202
Gaseous inhalation anaesthesia 202
Injection anaesthesia 203
Hypothermia 204
Summary 204
References 205
14 Transportation and Anaesthesia 207
Introduction 207
The physical and biological problems in transportation 208
Handling 208
Mechanical stress 209
Temperature 209
Dissolved oxygen 210
Salinity 210
Carbon dioxide 211
Ammonia 211
Suspended solids 211
Basic techniques for transportation 212
Conditioning 212
Containers 212
Controlling the environment 214
Sedation 215
Sedation of molluscs 215
Sedation of crustaceans 216
Sedation of fish 217
Summary 220
References 221
15 Concluding Remarks 225
Glossary of Technical Terms 227
Species Index 231
Subject Index 234