简介
This new Fifth Edition of Principles of Lasers incorporates corrections to the previous edition. The text鈥檚 essential mission remains the same: to provide a wide-ranging yet unified description of laser behavior, physics, technology, and current applications. Dr. Svelto emphasizes the physical rather than the mathematical aspects of lasers, and presents the subject in the simplest terms compatible with a correct physical understanding. Praise for earlier editions: "Professor Svelto is himself a longtime laser pioneer and his text shows the breadth of his broad acquaintance with all aspects of the field 鈥?Anyone mastering the contents of this book will be well prepared to understand advanced treatises and research papers in laser science and technology." (Arthur L. Schawlow, 1981 Nobel Laureate in Physics) "Already well established as a self-contained introduction to the physics and technology of lasers 鈥?Professor Svelto鈥檚 book, in this lucid translation by David Hanna, can be strongly recommended for self-study or teaching at the final-year undergraduate or first-year post-graduate levels." (Physics Bulletin) "A thorough understanding of this book in conjunction with one of the existing volumes on laser safety will go a long way in providing the health physicist with the understanding he needs 鈥?Highly recommended." (Health Physics) "Introduces laser science and technology with the accessibility appropriate for the nonspecialist and the enthusiasm of the pioneer." (Laser Focus) "A very good introduction to laser theory and practice 鈥?aimed at upper-level undergraduate students. It is logically organized and easy to read 鈥?Most of the basic mathematical framework needed to understand this evolving field is presented. Every chapter contains a good set of problems, answers to some of which are given in the back." (Sci-Tech News) Orazio Svelto is Professor of Quantum Electronics at the Polytechnic Institute of Milan and Director of the Quantum Electronics Center of the Italian National Research Council. His research has covered a wide range of activity in the field of laser physics and quantum electronics, starting from the very beginning of these disciplines. This activity includes ultrashort-pulse generation and applications, development of laser resonators and mode-selection techniques, laser applications in biology and medicine, and development of solid-state lasers. Professor Svelto is the author of more than 150 scientific papers and his researches have been the subject of more than 50 invited papers and international conferences. He has served as a program chair of the IX International Quantum Electronics Conference (1976), as a chair of the European program committee for CLEO 鈥?5 and CLEO 鈥?0, and he was general co-chair for the first CLEO-Europe Conference (1994). He is an elected member of the Italian "Accademia dei XL" and a Fellow of the IEEE.
目录
1 Introductory Concepts 19
1.1 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission, Absorption 19
1.2 The Laser Idea 22
1.3 Pumping Schemes 24
1.4 Properties of Laser Beams 26
1.4.1 Monochromaticity 27
1.4.2 Coherence 27
1.4.3 Directionality 28
1.4.4 Brightness 29
1.4.5 Short Time Duration 31
1.5 Types of Lasers 32
1.6 Organization of the Book 32
Problems 33
2 Interaction of Radiation with Atoms and Ions 34
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Summary of Blackbody Radiation Theory 34
2.2.1 Modes of a Rectangular Cavity 36
2.2.2 The Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck Radiation Formula 39
2.2.3 Planck's Hypothesis and Field Quantization 41
2.3 Spontaneous Emission 43
2.3.1 Semiclassical Approach 43
2.3.2 Quantum Electrodynamics Approach 47
2.3.3 Allowed and Forbidden Transitions 48
2.4 Absorption and Stimulated Emission 49
2.4.1 Rates of Absorption and Stimulated Emission 49
2.4.2 Allowed and Forbidden Transitions 53
2.4.3 Transition Cross Section, Absorption and Gain Coefficient 54
2.4.4 Einstein Thermodynamic Treatment 58
2.5 Line Broadening Mechanisms 60
2.5.1 Homogeneous Broadening 60
2.5.2 Inhomogeneous Broadening 64
2.5.3 Concluding Remarks 66
2.6 Nonradiative Decay and Energy Transfer 67
2.6.1 Mechanisms of Nonradiative Decay 67
2.6.2 Combined Effects of Radiative and Nonradiative Processes 73
2.7 Degenerate or Strongly Coupled Levels 75
2.7.1 Degenerate Levels 75
2.7.2 Strongly Coupled Levels 77
2.8 Saturation 81
2.8.1 Saturation of Absorption: Homogeneous Line 81
2.8.2 Gain Saturation: Homogeneous Line 84
2.8.3 Inhomogeneously Broadened Line 86
2.9 Decay of an Optically Dense Medium 87
2.9.1 Radiation Trapping 88
2.9.2 Amplified Spontaneous Emission 88
2.10 Concluding Remarks 93
Problems 94
References 95
3 Energy Levels, Radiative and Nonradiative Transitions in Molecules and Semiconductors 97
3.1 Molecules 97
3.1.1 Energy Levels 97
3.1.2 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 101
3.1.3 Stimulated Transitions 103
3.1.4 Radiative and Nonradiative Decay 107
3.2 Bulk Semiconductors 109
3.2.1 Electronic States 109
3.2.2 Density of States 113
3.2.3 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 114
3.2.4 Stimulated Transitions 117
3.2.5 Absorption and Gain Coefficients 120
3.2.6 Spontaneous Emission and Nonradiative Decay 126
3.2.7 Concluding Remarks 128
3.3 Semiconductor Quantum Wells 129
3.3.1 Electronic States 129
3.3.2 Density of States 132
3.3.3 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 134
3.3.4 Stimulated Transitions 135
3.3.5 Absorption and Gain Coefficients 137
3.3.6 Strained Quantum Wells 141
3.4 Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots 142
3.5 Concluding Remarks 144
Problems 144
References 145
4 Ray and Wave Propagation Through Optical Media 147
4.1 Introduction 147
4.2 Matrix Formulation of Geometrical Optics 147
4.3 Wave Reflection and Transmission at a Dielectric Interface 153
4.4 Multilayer Dielectric Coatings 155
4.5 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 158
4.5.1 Properties of a Fabry-Perot Interferometer 158
4.5.2 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer as a Spectrometer 162
4.6 Diffraction Optics in the Paraxial Approximation 163
4.7 Gaussian Beams 166
4.7.1 Lowest-Order Mode 166
4.7.2 Free Space Propagation 169
4.7.3 Gaussian Beams and the ABCD Law 172
4.7.4 Higher-Order Modes 174
4.8 Conclusions 175
Problems 175
References 177
5 Passive Optical Resonators 178
5.1 Introduction 178
5.2 Eigenmodes and Eigenvalues 182
5.3 Photon Lifetime and Cavity Q 184
5.4 Stability Condition 186
5.5 Stable Resonators 190
5.5.1 Resonators with Infinite Aperture 190
5.5.1.1 Eigenmodes 191
5.5.1.2 Eigenvalues 195
5.5.1.3 Standing- and Traveling-Waves in a Two-Mirror Resonator 197
5.5.2 Effects of a Finite Aperture 198
5.5.3 Dynamically and Mechanically Stable Resonators 201
5.6 Unstable Resonators 204
5.6.1 Geometrical-Optics Description 205
5.6.2 Wave-Optics Description 207
5.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hard-Edge Unstable Resonators 211
5.6.4 Variable-Reflectivity Unstable Resonators 211
5.7 Concluding Remarks 215
Problems 215
References 218
6 Pumping Processes 219
6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 Optical Pumping by an Incoherent Light Source 222
6.2.1 Pumping Systems 222
6.2.2 Absorption of Pump Light 225
6.2.3 Pump Efficiency and Pump Rate 227
6.3 Laser Pumping 229
6.3.1 Laser Diode Pumps 231
6.3.2 Pump Transfer Systems 233
6.3.2.1 Longitudinal Pumping 233
6.3.2.2 Transverse Pumping 238
6.3.3 Pump Rate and Pump Efficiency 239
6.3.4 Threshold Pump Power for Four-Level and Quasi-Three-Level Lasers 242
6.3.5 Comparison Between Diode-pumping and Lamp-pumping 244
6.4 Electrical Pumping 246
6.4.1 Electron Impact Excitation 250
6.4.1.1 Electron Impact Cross Section 251
6.4.2 Thermal and Drift Velocities 254
6.4.3 Electron Energy Distribution 256
6.4.4 The Ionization Balance Equation 259
6.4.5 Scaling Laws for Electrical Discharge Lasers 261
6.4.6 Pump Rate and Pump Efficiency 262
6.5 Conclusions 264
Problems 264
References 267
7 Continuous Wave Laser Behavior 268
7.1 Introduction 268
7.2 Rate Equations 268
7.2.1 Four-Level Laser 269
7.2.2 Quasi-Three-Level Laser 274
7.3 Threshold Conditions and Output Power: Four-Level Laser 276
7.3.1 Space-Independent Model 277
7.3.2 Space-Dependent Model 283
7.4 Threshold Condition and Output Power: Quasi-Three-Level Laser 292
7.4.1 Space-Independent Model 292
7.4.2 Space-Dependent Model 293
7.5 Optimum Output Coupling 296
7.6 Laser Tuning 298
7.7 Reasons for Multimode Oscillation 300
7.8 Single-Mode Selection 303
7.8.1 Single-Transverse-Mode Selection 303
7.8.2 Single-Longitudinal-Mode Selection 304
7.8.2.1 Fabry-Perot Etalons as Mode-Selective Elements 305
7.8.2.2 Single Mode Selection via Unidirectional Ring Resonators 307
7.9 Frequency-Pulling and Limit to Monochromaticity 310
7.10 Laser Frequency Fluctuations and Frequency Stabilization 313
7.11 Intensity Noise and Intensity Noise Reduction 317
7.12 Conclusions 319
Problems 321
References 323
8 Transient Laser Behavior 325
8.1 Introduction 325
8.2 Relaxation Oscillations 325
8.2.1 Linearized Analysis 327
8.3 Dynamical Instabilities and Pulsations in Lasers 330
8.4 Q-Switching 331
8.4.1 Dynamics of the Q-Switching Process 331
8.4.2 Methods of Q-Switching 333
8.4.2.1 Electro-Optical Q-Switching 334
8.4.2.2 Rotating Prisms 335
8.4.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches 336
8.4.2.4 Saturable-Absorber Q-Switch 337
8.4.3 Operating Regimes 340
8.4.4 Theory of Active Q-Switching 341
8.5 Gain Switching 349
8.6 Mode-Locking 351
8.6.1 Frequency-Domain Description 352
8.6.2 Time-Domain Picture 356
8.6.3 Methods of Mode-Locking 358
8.6.3.1 Active Mode-Locking 358
8.6.3.2 Passive Mode Locking 362
8.6.4 The Role of Cavity Dispersion in Femtosecond Mode-Locked Lasers 368
8.6.4.1 Phase-Velocity, Group-Velocity and Group-Delay-Dispersion 368
8.6.4.2 Limitation on Pulse Duration due to Group-Delay Dispersion 370
8.6.4.3 Dispersion Compensation 372
8.6.4.4 Soliton-type of Mode-Locking 373
8.6.5 Mode-Locking Regimes and Mode-Locking Systems 376
8.7 Cavity Dumping 380
8.8 Concluding Remarks 381
Problems 382
References 384
9 Solid-State, Dye, and Semiconductor Lasers 386
9.1 Introduction 386
9.2 Solid-State Lasers 386
9.2.1 The Ruby Laser 388
9.2.2 Neodymium Lasers 391
9.2.2.1 Nd:YAG 391
9.2.2.2 Nd:Glass 394
9.2.2.3 Other Crystalline Hosts 395
9.2.3 Yb:YAG 395
9.2.4 Er:YAG and Yb:Er:glass 397
9.2.5 Tm:Ho:YAG 398
9.2.6 Fiber Lasers 400
9.2.7 Alexandrite Laser 402
9.2.8 Titanium Sapphire Laser 405
9.2.9 Cr:LISAF and Cr:LICAF 407
9.3 Dye Lasers 408
9.3.1 Photophysical Properties of Organic Dyes 408
9.3.2 Characteristics of Dye Lasers 412
9.4 Semiconductor Lasers 416
9.4.1 Principle of Semiconductor Laser Operation 416
9.4.2 The Homojunction Laser 418
9.4.3 The Double-Heterostructure Laser 419
9.4.4 Quantum Well Lasers 424
9.4.5 Laser Devices and Performances 427
9.4.6 Distributed Feedback and Distributed Bragg Reflector Lasers 430
9.4.7 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers 434
9.4.8 Applications of Semiconductor Lasers 436
9.5 Conclusions 438
Problems 438
References 440
10 Gas, Chemical, Free Electron, and X-Ray Lasers 442
10.1 Introduction 442
10.2 Gas Lasers 442
10.2.1 Neutral Atom Lasers 443
10.2.1.1 Helium-Neon Lasers 443
10.2.1.2 Copper Vapor Lasers 448
10.2.2 Ion Lasers 450
10.2.2.1 Argon Laser 450
10.2.2.2 He-Cd Laser 453
10.2.3 Molecular Gas Lasers 455
10.2.3.1 The CO2 Laser 455
10.2.3.2 The CO Laser 465
10.2.3.3 The N2 Laser 467
10.2.3.4 Excimer Lasers 468
10.3 Chemical Lasers 472
10.3.1 The HF Laser 472
10.4 The Free-Electron Laser 476
10.5 X-ray Lasers 480
10.6 Concluding Remarks 482
Problems 482
References 484
11 Properties of Laser Beams 486
11.1 Introduction 486
11.2 Monochromaticity 486
11.3 First-Order Coherence 487
11.3.1 Degree of Spatial and Temporal Coherence 488
11.3.2 Measurement of Spatial and Temporal Coherence 491
11.3.3 Relation Between Temporal Coherence and Monochromaticity 494
11.3.4 Nonstationary Beams 496
11.3.5 Spatial and Temporal Coherence of Single-Mode and Multimode Lasers 496
11.3.6 Spatial and Temporal Coherence of a Thermal Light Source 499
11.4 Directionality 500
11.4.1 Beams with Perfect Spatial Coherence 500
11.4.2 Beams with Partial Spatial Coherence 502
11.4.3 The M2 Factor and the Spot-Size Parameter of a Multimode Laser Beam 503
11.5 Laser Speckle 506
11.6 Brightness 509
11.7 Statistical Properties of Laser Light and Thermal Light 510
11.8 Comparison Between Laser Light and Thermal Light 512
Problems 514
References 515
12 Laser Beam Transformation: Propagation, Amplification, Frequency Conversion, Pulse Compressionand Pulse Expansion 516
12.1 Introduction 516
12.2 Spatial Transformation: Propagation of a Multimode Laser Beam 517
12.3 Amplitude Transformation: Laser Amplification 518
12.3.1 Examples of Laser Amplifiers: Chirped-Pulse-Amplification 523
12.4 Frequency Conversion: Second-Harmonic Generation and Parametric Oscillation 527
12.4.1 Physical Picture 527
12.4.1.1 Second-Harmonic Generation 528
12.4.1.2 Parametric Oscillation 535
12.4.2 Analytical Treatment 537
12.4.2.1 Parametric Oscillation 539
12.4.2.2 Second-Harmonic Generation 543
12.5 Transformation in Time: Pulse Compression and Pulse Expansion 546
12.5.1 Pulse Compression 547
12.5.2 Pulse Expansion 552
Problems 554
References 555
Appendices 557
A Semiclassical Treatment of the Interaction of Radiation with Matter 557
B Lineshape Calculation for Collision Broadening 563
C Simplified Treatment of Amplified Spontaneous Emission 566
References 569
D Calculation of the Radiative Transition Rates of Molecular Transitions 570
E Space Dependent Rate Equations 573
E.1 Four-Level Laser 573
E.2 Quasi-Three-Level Laser 579
F Theory of Mode-Locking: Homogeneous Line 582
F.1 Active Mode-Locking 582
F.2 Passive Mode-Locking 587
References 588
G Propagation of a Laser Pulse Through a Dispersive Medium or a Gain Medium 589
References 593
H Higher-Order Coherence 594
I Physical Constants and Useful Conversion Factors 597
Answers to Selected Problems 599
Chapter 1 599
Chapter 2 599
Chapter 3 601
Chapter 4 602
Chapter 5 603
Chapter 6 604
Chapter 7 605
Chapter 8 607
Chapter 9 608
Chapter 10 608
Chapter 11 609
Chapter 12 610
Index 611
1.1 Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission, Absorption 19
1.2 The Laser Idea 22
1.3 Pumping Schemes 24
1.4 Properties of Laser Beams 26
1.4.1 Monochromaticity 27
1.4.2 Coherence 27
1.4.3 Directionality 28
1.4.4 Brightness 29
1.4.5 Short Time Duration 31
1.5 Types of Lasers 32
1.6 Organization of the Book 32
Problems 33
2 Interaction of Radiation with Atoms and Ions 34
2.1 Introduction 34
2.2 Summary of Blackbody Radiation Theory 34
2.2.1 Modes of a Rectangular Cavity 36
2.2.2 The Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck Radiation Formula 39
2.2.3 Planck's Hypothesis and Field Quantization 41
2.3 Spontaneous Emission 43
2.3.1 Semiclassical Approach 43
2.3.2 Quantum Electrodynamics Approach 47
2.3.3 Allowed and Forbidden Transitions 48
2.4 Absorption and Stimulated Emission 49
2.4.1 Rates of Absorption and Stimulated Emission 49
2.4.2 Allowed and Forbidden Transitions 53
2.4.3 Transition Cross Section, Absorption and Gain Coefficient 54
2.4.4 Einstein Thermodynamic Treatment 58
2.5 Line Broadening Mechanisms 60
2.5.1 Homogeneous Broadening 60
2.5.2 Inhomogeneous Broadening 64
2.5.3 Concluding Remarks 66
2.6 Nonradiative Decay and Energy Transfer 67
2.6.1 Mechanisms of Nonradiative Decay 67
2.6.2 Combined Effects of Radiative and Nonradiative Processes 73
2.7 Degenerate or Strongly Coupled Levels 75
2.7.1 Degenerate Levels 75
2.7.2 Strongly Coupled Levels 77
2.8 Saturation 81
2.8.1 Saturation of Absorption: Homogeneous Line 81
2.8.2 Gain Saturation: Homogeneous Line 84
2.8.3 Inhomogeneously Broadened Line 86
2.9 Decay of an Optically Dense Medium 87
2.9.1 Radiation Trapping 88
2.9.2 Amplified Spontaneous Emission 88
2.10 Concluding Remarks 93
Problems 94
References 95
3 Energy Levels, Radiative and Nonradiative Transitions in Molecules and Semiconductors 97
3.1 Molecules 97
3.1.1 Energy Levels 97
3.1.2 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 101
3.1.3 Stimulated Transitions 103
3.1.4 Radiative and Nonradiative Decay 107
3.2 Bulk Semiconductors 109
3.2.1 Electronic States 109
3.2.2 Density of States 113
3.2.3 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 114
3.2.4 Stimulated Transitions 117
3.2.5 Absorption and Gain Coefficients 120
3.2.6 Spontaneous Emission and Nonradiative Decay 126
3.2.7 Concluding Remarks 128
3.3 Semiconductor Quantum Wells 129
3.3.1 Electronic States 129
3.3.2 Density of States 132
3.3.3 Level Occupation at Thermal Equilibrium 134
3.3.4 Stimulated Transitions 135
3.3.5 Absorption and Gain Coefficients 137
3.3.6 Strained Quantum Wells 141
3.4 Quantum Wires and Quantum Dots 142
3.5 Concluding Remarks 144
Problems 144
References 145
4 Ray and Wave Propagation Through Optical Media 147
4.1 Introduction 147
4.2 Matrix Formulation of Geometrical Optics 147
4.3 Wave Reflection and Transmission at a Dielectric Interface 153
4.4 Multilayer Dielectric Coatings 155
4.5 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer 158
4.5.1 Properties of a Fabry-Perot Interferometer 158
4.5.2 The Fabry-Perot Interferometer as a Spectrometer 162
4.6 Diffraction Optics in the Paraxial Approximation 163
4.7 Gaussian Beams 166
4.7.1 Lowest-Order Mode 166
4.7.2 Free Space Propagation 169
4.7.3 Gaussian Beams and the ABCD Law 172
4.7.4 Higher-Order Modes 174
4.8 Conclusions 175
Problems 175
References 177
5 Passive Optical Resonators 178
5.1 Introduction 178
5.2 Eigenmodes and Eigenvalues 182
5.3 Photon Lifetime and Cavity Q 184
5.4 Stability Condition 186
5.5 Stable Resonators 190
5.5.1 Resonators with Infinite Aperture 190
5.5.1.1 Eigenmodes 191
5.5.1.2 Eigenvalues 195
5.5.1.3 Standing- and Traveling-Waves in a Two-Mirror Resonator 197
5.5.2 Effects of a Finite Aperture 198
5.5.3 Dynamically and Mechanically Stable Resonators 201
5.6 Unstable Resonators 204
5.6.1 Geometrical-Optics Description 205
5.6.2 Wave-Optics Description 207
5.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hard-Edge Unstable Resonators 211
5.6.4 Variable-Reflectivity Unstable Resonators 211
5.7 Concluding Remarks 215
Problems 215
References 218
6 Pumping Processes 219
6.1 Introduction 219
6.2 Optical Pumping by an Incoherent Light Source 222
6.2.1 Pumping Systems 222
6.2.2 Absorption of Pump Light 225
6.2.3 Pump Efficiency and Pump Rate 227
6.3 Laser Pumping 229
6.3.1 Laser Diode Pumps 231
6.3.2 Pump Transfer Systems 233
6.3.2.1 Longitudinal Pumping 233
6.3.2.2 Transverse Pumping 238
6.3.3 Pump Rate and Pump Efficiency 239
6.3.4 Threshold Pump Power for Four-Level and Quasi-Three-Level Lasers 242
6.3.5 Comparison Between Diode-pumping and Lamp-pumping 244
6.4 Electrical Pumping 246
6.4.1 Electron Impact Excitation 250
6.4.1.1 Electron Impact Cross Section 251
6.4.2 Thermal and Drift Velocities 254
6.4.3 Electron Energy Distribution 256
6.4.4 The Ionization Balance Equation 259
6.4.5 Scaling Laws for Electrical Discharge Lasers 261
6.4.6 Pump Rate and Pump Efficiency 262
6.5 Conclusions 264
Problems 264
References 267
7 Continuous Wave Laser Behavior 268
7.1 Introduction 268
7.2 Rate Equations 268
7.2.1 Four-Level Laser 269
7.2.2 Quasi-Three-Level Laser 274
7.3 Threshold Conditions and Output Power: Four-Level Laser 276
7.3.1 Space-Independent Model 277
7.3.2 Space-Dependent Model 283
7.4 Threshold Condition and Output Power: Quasi-Three-Level Laser 292
7.4.1 Space-Independent Model 292
7.4.2 Space-Dependent Model 293
7.5 Optimum Output Coupling 296
7.6 Laser Tuning 298
7.7 Reasons for Multimode Oscillation 300
7.8 Single-Mode Selection 303
7.8.1 Single-Transverse-Mode Selection 303
7.8.2 Single-Longitudinal-Mode Selection 304
7.8.2.1 Fabry-Perot Etalons as Mode-Selective Elements 305
7.8.2.2 Single Mode Selection via Unidirectional Ring Resonators 307
7.9 Frequency-Pulling and Limit to Monochromaticity 310
7.10 Laser Frequency Fluctuations and Frequency Stabilization 313
7.11 Intensity Noise and Intensity Noise Reduction 317
7.12 Conclusions 319
Problems 321
References 323
8 Transient Laser Behavior 325
8.1 Introduction 325
8.2 Relaxation Oscillations 325
8.2.1 Linearized Analysis 327
8.3 Dynamical Instabilities and Pulsations in Lasers 330
8.4 Q-Switching 331
8.4.1 Dynamics of the Q-Switching Process 331
8.4.2 Methods of Q-Switching 333
8.4.2.1 Electro-Optical Q-Switching 334
8.4.2.2 Rotating Prisms 335
8.4.2.3 Acousto-Optic Q-Switches 336
8.4.2.4 Saturable-Absorber Q-Switch 337
8.4.3 Operating Regimes 340
8.4.4 Theory of Active Q-Switching 341
8.5 Gain Switching 349
8.6 Mode-Locking 351
8.6.1 Frequency-Domain Description 352
8.6.2 Time-Domain Picture 356
8.6.3 Methods of Mode-Locking 358
8.6.3.1 Active Mode-Locking 358
8.6.3.2 Passive Mode Locking 362
8.6.4 The Role of Cavity Dispersion in Femtosecond Mode-Locked Lasers 368
8.6.4.1 Phase-Velocity, Group-Velocity and Group-Delay-Dispersion 368
8.6.4.2 Limitation on Pulse Duration due to Group-Delay Dispersion 370
8.6.4.3 Dispersion Compensation 372
8.6.4.4 Soliton-type of Mode-Locking 373
8.6.5 Mode-Locking Regimes and Mode-Locking Systems 376
8.7 Cavity Dumping 380
8.8 Concluding Remarks 381
Problems 382
References 384
9 Solid-State, Dye, and Semiconductor Lasers 386
9.1 Introduction 386
9.2 Solid-State Lasers 386
9.2.1 The Ruby Laser 388
9.2.2 Neodymium Lasers 391
9.2.2.1 Nd:YAG 391
9.2.2.2 Nd:Glass 394
9.2.2.3 Other Crystalline Hosts 395
9.2.3 Yb:YAG 395
9.2.4 Er:YAG and Yb:Er:glass 397
9.2.5 Tm:Ho:YAG 398
9.2.6 Fiber Lasers 400
9.2.7 Alexandrite Laser 402
9.2.8 Titanium Sapphire Laser 405
9.2.9 Cr:LISAF and Cr:LICAF 407
9.3 Dye Lasers 408
9.3.1 Photophysical Properties of Organic Dyes 408
9.3.2 Characteristics of Dye Lasers 412
9.4 Semiconductor Lasers 416
9.4.1 Principle of Semiconductor Laser Operation 416
9.4.2 The Homojunction Laser 418
9.4.3 The Double-Heterostructure Laser 419
9.4.4 Quantum Well Lasers 424
9.4.5 Laser Devices and Performances 427
9.4.6 Distributed Feedback and Distributed Bragg Reflector Lasers 430
9.4.7 Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Lasers 434
9.4.8 Applications of Semiconductor Lasers 436
9.5 Conclusions 438
Problems 438
References 440
10 Gas, Chemical, Free Electron, and X-Ray Lasers 442
10.1 Introduction 442
10.2 Gas Lasers 442
10.2.1 Neutral Atom Lasers 443
10.2.1.1 Helium-Neon Lasers 443
10.2.1.2 Copper Vapor Lasers 448
10.2.2 Ion Lasers 450
10.2.2.1 Argon Laser 450
10.2.2.2 He-Cd Laser 453
10.2.3 Molecular Gas Lasers 455
10.2.3.1 The CO2 Laser 455
10.2.3.2 The CO Laser 465
10.2.3.3 The N2 Laser 467
10.2.3.4 Excimer Lasers 468
10.3 Chemical Lasers 472
10.3.1 The HF Laser 472
10.4 The Free-Electron Laser 476
10.5 X-ray Lasers 480
10.6 Concluding Remarks 482
Problems 482
References 484
11 Properties of Laser Beams 486
11.1 Introduction 486
11.2 Monochromaticity 486
11.3 First-Order Coherence 487
11.3.1 Degree of Spatial and Temporal Coherence 488
11.3.2 Measurement of Spatial and Temporal Coherence 491
11.3.3 Relation Between Temporal Coherence and Monochromaticity 494
11.3.4 Nonstationary Beams 496
11.3.5 Spatial and Temporal Coherence of Single-Mode and Multimode Lasers 496
11.3.6 Spatial and Temporal Coherence of a Thermal Light Source 499
11.4 Directionality 500
11.4.1 Beams with Perfect Spatial Coherence 500
11.4.2 Beams with Partial Spatial Coherence 502
11.4.3 The M2 Factor and the Spot-Size Parameter of a Multimode Laser Beam 503
11.5 Laser Speckle 506
11.6 Brightness 509
11.7 Statistical Properties of Laser Light and Thermal Light 510
11.8 Comparison Between Laser Light and Thermal Light 512
Problems 514
References 515
12 Laser Beam Transformation: Propagation, Amplification, Frequency Conversion, Pulse Compressionand Pulse Expansion 516
12.1 Introduction 516
12.2 Spatial Transformation: Propagation of a Multimode Laser Beam 517
12.3 Amplitude Transformation: Laser Amplification 518
12.3.1 Examples of Laser Amplifiers: Chirped-Pulse-Amplification 523
12.4 Frequency Conversion: Second-Harmonic Generation and Parametric Oscillation 527
12.4.1 Physical Picture 527
12.4.1.1 Second-Harmonic Generation 528
12.4.1.2 Parametric Oscillation 535
12.4.2 Analytical Treatment 537
12.4.2.1 Parametric Oscillation 539
12.4.2.2 Second-Harmonic Generation 543
12.5 Transformation in Time: Pulse Compression and Pulse Expansion 546
12.5.1 Pulse Compression 547
12.5.2 Pulse Expansion 552
Problems 554
References 555
Appendices 557
A Semiclassical Treatment of the Interaction of Radiation with Matter 557
B Lineshape Calculation for Collision Broadening 563
C Simplified Treatment of Amplified Spontaneous Emission 566
References 569
D Calculation of the Radiative Transition Rates of Molecular Transitions 570
E Space Dependent Rate Equations 573
E.1 Four-Level Laser 573
E.2 Quasi-Three-Level Laser 579
F Theory of Mode-Locking: Homogeneous Line 582
F.1 Active Mode-Locking 582
F.2 Passive Mode-Locking 587
References 588
G Propagation of a Laser Pulse Through a Dispersive Medium or a Gain Medium 589
References 593
H Higher-Order Coherence 594
I Physical Constants and Useful Conversion Factors 597
Answers to Selected Problems 599
Chapter 1 599
Chapter 2 599
Chapter 3 601
Chapter 4 602
Chapter 5 603
Chapter 6 604
Chapter 7 605
Chapter 8 607
Chapter 9 608
Chapter 10 608
Chapter 11 609
Chapter 12 610
Index 611
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