Control of pests and weeds by natural enemies : an introduction to biological control /
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作 者：Roy Van Driesche, Mark Hoddle, and Ted Center.
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ISBN：9781405145718
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简介
Biological control – utilizing a population of natural enemies to seasonally or permanently suppress pests – is not a new concept. The cottony cushion scale, which nearly destroyed the citrus industry of California, was controlled by an introduced predatory insect in the 1880s. Accelerated invasions by insects and spread of weedy non–native plants in the last century have increased the need for the use of biological control. Use of carefully chosen natural enemies has become a major tool for the protection of natural ecosystems, biodiversity and agricultural and urban environments.
This book offers a multifaceted yet integrated discussion on two major applications of biological control: permanent control of invasive insects and plants at the landscape level and temporary suppression of both native and exotic pests in farms, tree plantations, and greenhouses. Written by leading international experts in the field, the text discusses control of invasive species and the role of natural enemies in pest management.
This book is essential reading for courses on Invasive Species, Pest Management, and Crop Protection. It is an invaluable reference book for biocontrol professionals, restorationists, agriculturalists, and wildlife biologists.
Further information and resources can be found on the Editor’s own website at: www.invasiveforestinsectandweedbiocontrol.info/index.htm
目录
Preface p. ix
Scope of Biological Control p. 1
Introduction p. 3
Types of Biological Control, Targets, and Agents p. 4
What is biological control? p. 4
Permanent control over large areas p. 4
Temporary pest suppression in production areas p. 6
Kinds of targets and kinds of agents p. 8
Kinds of Natural Enemies p. 9
Parasitoid Diversity and Ecology p. 11
What is a parasitoid? p. 11
Terms and processes p. 11
Some references to parasitoid families p. 13
Groups of parasitoids p. 13
Finding hosts p. 15
Host recognition and assessment p. 19
Defeating host defenses p. 22
Regulating host physiology p. 24
Patch-time allocation p. 25
Predator Diversity and Ecology p. 29
Non-insect predators p. 29
Major groups of predatory insects p. 31
Overview of predator biology p. 33
Predator foraging behavior p. 34
Predators and pest control p. 37
Effects of alternative foods on predator impact p. 40
Interference of generalist predators with classical biological control agents p. 41
Predator and prey defense strategies p. 43
Weed Biocontrol Agent Diversity and Ecology p. 45
The goal of weed biological control p. 45
Terms and processes p. 45
Herbivory and host finding p. 46
Herbivore guilds p. 47
Group of herbivores and plant pathogens p. 47
Arthropod Pathogen Diversity and Ecology p. 56
Bacterial pathogens of arthropods p. 56
Viral pathogens of arthropods p. 58
Fungal pathogens of arthropods p. 59
Nematodes attacking arthropods p. 61
Generalized arthropod pathogen life cycle p. 62
Epidemiology: what leads to disease outbreaks? p. 64
Invasions: Why Biological Control is Needed p. 67
The Invasion Crisis p. 69
Urgency of the invasion crisis p. 69
Case histories of four high-impact invaders p. 70
The extent of harmful impact by invaders p. 73
How do invasive species get to new places? p. 75
Why do some invasions succeed but others fail? p. 77
Invader ecology and impact p. 78
Ways to Suppress Invasive Species p. 80
Prevention: heading off new invasions through sound policy p. 80
Eradication based on early detection p. 83
Invaders that do no harm p. 84
Control of invasive pests in natural areas p. 84
Factors affecting control in natural areas p. 86
Control of invasive species in crops p. 87
Natural Enemy Introductions: Theory and Practice p. 89
Interaction Webs as the Conceptual Framework for Classical Biological Control p. 91
Terminology p. 91
Forces setting plant population density p. 93
Forces setting insect population density p. 94
Predictions about pests based on food webs p. 95
The Role of Population Ecology and Population Models in Biological Control, By Joseph Elkinton p. 97
Basic concepts p. 97
Population models p. 104
Classical Biological Control p. 115
Introduction p. 115
Classical biological control p. 115
New-association biological control p. 133
Summary p. 136
Weed Biological Control p. 137
Differences and similarities between weed and arthropod programs p. 137
Why plants become invasive p. 138
Selecting suitable targets for weed biological control p. 139
Conflicts of interest in weed biological control p. 139
Faunal inventories: finding potential weed biological control agents p. 139
Safety: "will those bugs eat my roses?" p. 141
Pre-release determination of efficacy p. 142
How many agents are necessary for weed control? p. 143
Release, establishment, and dispersal p. 144
Evaluation of impacts p. 145
Non-target impacts p. 146
When is a project successful? p. 146
Conclusions p. 147
Tools for Classical Biological Control p. 149
Foreign Exploration p. 151
Planning and conducting foreign exploration p. 151
Shipping natural enemies p. 154
Operating a quarantine laboratory p. 156
Managing insect colonies in quarantine p. 157
Developing petitions for release into the environment p. 158
Climate Matching p. 160
Climate matching p. 160
Inductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success p. 162
Deductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success p. 164
Conclusions p. 165
Molecular Tools, By Richard Stouthamer p. 167
Types of molecular data p. 168
Important biological control issues that molecular techniques can address p. 177
Conclusions p. 179
Safety p. 181
Non-Target Impacts of Biological Control Agents p. 183
Biological control as an evolving technology p. 183
The amateur to early scientific period (1800-1920) p. 184
A developing science makes some mistakes (1920-70) p. 188
Broadening perspectives (1970-90) p. 192
Current practice and concerns p. 195
"Re-greening" biological control p. 198
Predicting Natural Enemy Host Ranges p. 199
Literature records p. 199
Surveys in the native range p. 201
Laboratory testing to estimate host ranges p. 201
Interpretation of tests p. 207
Examples of host-range estimation p. 209
Risk assessment p. 213
Avoiding Indirect Non-Target Impacts p. 215
Kinds of potential indirect effects p. 215
Can risk of indirect impacts be reduced by predicting natural enemy efficacy? p. 216
Measuring Natural Enemy Impacts on Pests p. 221
Field Colonization of Natural Enemies p. 223
Limitations from the agent or recipient community p. 223
Managing release sites p. 225
Quality of the release p. 225
Caging or other release methods p. 228
Persistence and confirmation p. 229
Natural Enemy Evaluation p. 230
Natural enemy surveys in crops p. 230
Pre-release surveys in the native range for classical biological control p. 231
Post-release surveys to detect establishment and spread of new agents p. 232
Post-release monitoring for non-target impacts p. 233
Measurement of impacts on the pest p. 233
Separating effects of a complex of natural enemies p. 248
Economic assessment of biological control p. 251
Conserving Biological Control Agents in Crops p. 253
Protecting Natural Enemies from Pesticides p. 255
Problems with pesticides p. 255
Super pests and missing natural enemies p. 256
Dead wildlife and pesticide residues in food p. 258
Cases when pesticides are the best tool p. 259
How pesticides affect natural enemies p. 259
Seeking solutions: physiological selectivity p. 261
Pesticide-resistant natural enemies p. 262
Ecological selectivity: using non-selective pesticides with skill p. 263
Transgenic Bt crops: the ultimate ecologically selective pesticide p. 264
Enhancing Crops as Natural Enemy Environments p. 266
Problem 1: unfavorable crop varieties p. 266
Solution 1: breeding natural enemy-friendly crops p. 268
Problem 2: crop fields physically damaging to natural enemies p. 269
Solution 2: cover crops, mulching, no-till farming, strip harvesting p. 269
Problem 3: inadequate nutritional sources p. 270
Solution 3: adding nutrition to crop environments p. 271
Problem 4: inadequate reproduction opportunities p. 272
Solution 4: creating opportunities for contact with alternative hosts or prey p. 273
Problem 5: inadequate sources of natural enemy colonists p. 273
Solution 5: crop-field connectivity, vegetation diversity, and refuges p. 274
Other practices that can affect natural enemies p. 276
Conclusions p. 278
Biopesticides p. 279
Microbial Pesticides: Issues and Concepts p. 281
History of microbial insecticides p. 281
What makes a pathogen a likely biopesticide? p. 282
Overview of options for rearing pathogens p. 283
Agent quality: finding it, keeping it, improving it p. 284
Measuring the efficacy of microbial pesticides p. 285
Degree of market penetration and future outlook p. 286
Use of Arthropod Pathogens as Pesticides p. 289
Bacteria as insecticides p. 289
Fungi as biopesticides p. 291
Viruses as insecticides p. 295
Nematodes for insect control p. 298
Safety of biopesticides p. 301
Augmentative Biological Control p. 305
Biological Control in Greenhouses p. 307
Historical beginnings p. 307
When are greenhouses favorable for biological control? p. 308
Natural enemies available from the insectary industry p. 310
Growers' commitment to change p. 315
Requirements for success: efficacy and low cost p. 315
Methods for mass rearing parasitoids and predators p. 318
Practical use of natural enemies p. 319
Programs with different biological control strategies p. 320
Integration of multiple biocontrol agents for several pests p. 322
Safety of natural enemy releases in greenhouses p. 323
Augmentative Release of Natural Enemies in Outdoor Crops p. 324
Trichogramma wasps for moth control p. 325
Use of predatory phytoseiid mites p. 331
Control of filth flies p. 332
Other examples of specialized agents p. 333
Generalist predators sold for non-specific problems p. 336
Other Targets and New Directions p. 339
Vertebrate Pests p. 341
Predators as vertebrate control agents p. 341
Parasites as vertebrate control agents p. 341
Pathogens as vertebrate control agents p. 343
New avenues for biological control of vertebrates p. 346
Conclusions p. 348
Expanding the Biological Control Horizon: New Purposes and New Targets p. 350
Targeting weeds and arthropod pests of natural areas p. 351
Targeting "non-traditional" invasive pests p. 351
Conclusions p. 354
Future Directions p. 356
Classical biological control p. 356
Conservation biological control p. 356
Augmentation biological control p. 357
Biopesticides p. 357
Conclusions p. 358
References p. 359
Index p. 448
Scope of Biological Control p. 1
Introduction p. 3
Types of Biological Control, Targets, and Agents p. 4
What is biological control? p. 4
Permanent control over large areas p. 4
Temporary pest suppression in production areas p. 6
Kinds of targets and kinds of agents p. 8
Kinds of Natural Enemies p. 9
Parasitoid Diversity and Ecology p. 11
What is a parasitoid? p. 11
Terms and processes p. 11
Some references to parasitoid families p. 13
Groups of parasitoids p. 13
Finding hosts p. 15
Host recognition and assessment p. 19
Defeating host defenses p. 22
Regulating host physiology p. 24
Patch-time allocation p. 25
Predator Diversity and Ecology p. 29
Non-insect predators p. 29
Major groups of predatory insects p. 31
Overview of predator biology p. 33
Predator foraging behavior p. 34
Predators and pest control p. 37
Effects of alternative foods on predator impact p. 40
Interference of generalist predators with classical biological control agents p. 41
Predator and prey defense strategies p. 43
Weed Biocontrol Agent Diversity and Ecology p. 45
The goal of weed biological control p. 45
Terms and processes p. 45
Herbivory and host finding p. 46
Herbivore guilds p. 47
Group of herbivores and plant pathogens p. 47
Arthropod Pathogen Diversity and Ecology p. 56
Bacterial pathogens of arthropods p. 56
Viral pathogens of arthropods p. 58
Fungal pathogens of arthropods p. 59
Nematodes attacking arthropods p. 61
Generalized arthropod pathogen life cycle p. 62
Epidemiology: what leads to disease outbreaks? p. 64
Invasions: Why Biological Control is Needed p. 67
The Invasion Crisis p. 69
Urgency of the invasion crisis p. 69
Case histories of four high-impact invaders p. 70
The extent of harmful impact by invaders p. 73
How do invasive species get to new places? p. 75
Why do some invasions succeed but others fail? p. 77
Invader ecology and impact p. 78
Ways to Suppress Invasive Species p. 80
Prevention: heading off new invasions through sound policy p. 80
Eradication based on early detection p. 83
Invaders that do no harm p. 84
Control of invasive pests in natural areas p. 84
Factors affecting control in natural areas p. 86
Control of invasive species in crops p. 87
Natural Enemy Introductions: Theory and Practice p. 89
Interaction Webs as the Conceptual Framework for Classical Biological Control p. 91
Terminology p. 91
Forces setting plant population density p. 93
Forces setting insect population density p. 94
Predictions about pests based on food webs p. 95
The Role of Population Ecology and Population Models in Biological Control, By Joseph Elkinton p. 97
Basic concepts p. 97
Population models p. 104
Classical Biological Control p. 115
Introduction p. 115
Classical biological control p. 115
New-association biological control p. 133
Summary p. 136
Weed Biological Control p. 137
Differences and similarities between weed and arthropod programs p. 137
Why plants become invasive p. 138
Selecting suitable targets for weed biological control p. 139
Conflicts of interest in weed biological control p. 139
Faunal inventories: finding potential weed biological control agents p. 139
Safety: "will those bugs eat my roses?" p. 141
Pre-release determination of efficacy p. 142
How many agents are necessary for weed control? p. 143
Release, establishment, and dispersal p. 144
Evaluation of impacts p. 145
Non-target impacts p. 146
When is a project successful? p. 146
Conclusions p. 147
Tools for Classical Biological Control p. 149
Foreign Exploration p. 151
Planning and conducting foreign exploration p. 151
Shipping natural enemies p. 154
Operating a quarantine laboratory p. 156
Managing insect colonies in quarantine p. 157
Developing petitions for release into the environment p. 158
Climate Matching p. 160
Climate matching p. 160
Inductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success p. 162
Deductive modeling: predicting spread and incursion success p. 164
Conclusions p. 165
Molecular Tools, By Richard Stouthamer p. 167
Types of molecular data p. 168
Important biological control issues that molecular techniques can address p. 177
Conclusions p. 179
Safety p. 181
Non-Target Impacts of Biological Control Agents p. 183
Biological control as an evolving technology p. 183
The amateur to early scientific period (1800-1920) p. 184
A developing science makes some mistakes (1920-70) p. 188
Broadening perspectives (1970-90) p. 192
Current practice and concerns p. 195
"Re-greening" biological control p. 198
Predicting Natural Enemy Host Ranges p. 199
Literature records p. 199
Surveys in the native range p. 201
Laboratory testing to estimate host ranges p. 201
Interpretation of tests p. 207
Examples of host-range estimation p. 209
Risk assessment p. 213
Avoiding Indirect Non-Target Impacts p. 215
Kinds of potential indirect effects p. 215
Can risk of indirect impacts be reduced by predicting natural enemy efficacy? p. 216
Measuring Natural Enemy Impacts on Pests p. 221
Field Colonization of Natural Enemies p. 223
Limitations from the agent or recipient community p. 223
Managing release sites p. 225
Quality of the release p. 225
Caging or other release methods p. 228
Persistence and confirmation p. 229
Natural Enemy Evaluation p. 230
Natural enemy surveys in crops p. 230
Pre-release surveys in the native range for classical biological control p. 231
Post-release surveys to detect establishment and spread of new agents p. 232
Post-release monitoring for non-target impacts p. 233
Measurement of impacts on the pest p. 233
Separating effects of a complex of natural enemies p. 248
Economic assessment of biological control p. 251
Conserving Biological Control Agents in Crops p. 253
Protecting Natural Enemies from Pesticides p. 255
Problems with pesticides p. 255
Super pests and missing natural enemies p. 256
Dead wildlife and pesticide residues in food p. 258
Cases when pesticides are the best tool p. 259
How pesticides affect natural enemies p. 259
Seeking solutions: physiological selectivity p. 261
Pesticide-resistant natural enemies p. 262
Ecological selectivity: using non-selective pesticides with skill p. 263
Transgenic Bt crops: the ultimate ecologically selective pesticide p. 264
Enhancing Crops as Natural Enemy Environments p. 266
Problem 1: unfavorable crop varieties p. 266
Solution 1: breeding natural enemy-friendly crops p. 268
Problem 2: crop fields physically damaging to natural enemies p. 269
Solution 2: cover crops, mulching, no-till farming, strip harvesting p. 269
Problem 3: inadequate nutritional sources p. 270
Solution 3: adding nutrition to crop environments p. 271
Problem 4: inadequate reproduction opportunities p. 272
Solution 4: creating opportunities for contact with alternative hosts or prey p. 273
Problem 5: inadequate sources of natural enemy colonists p. 273
Solution 5: crop-field connectivity, vegetation diversity, and refuges p. 274
Other practices that can affect natural enemies p. 276
Conclusions p. 278
Biopesticides p. 279
Microbial Pesticides: Issues and Concepts p. 281
History of microbial insecticides p. 281
What makes a pathogen a likely biopesticide? p. 282
Overview of options for rearing pathogens p. 283
Agent quality: finding it, keeping it, improving it p. 284
Measuring the efficacy of microbial pesticides p. 285
Degree of market penetration and future outlook p. 286
Use of Arthropod Pathogens as Pesticides p. 289
Bacteria as insecticides p. 289
Fungi as biopesticides p. 291
Viruses as insecticides p. 295
Nematodes for insect control p. 298
Safety of biopesticides p. 301
Augmentative Biological Control p. 305
Biological Control in Greenhouses p. 307
Historical beginnings p. 307
When are greenhouses favorable for biological control? p. 308
Natural enemies available from the insectary industry p. 310
Growers' commitment to change p. 315
Requirements for success: efficacy and low cost p. 315
Methods for mass rearing parasitoids and predators p. 318
Practical use of natural enemies p. 319
Programs with different biological control strategies p. 320
Integration of multiple biocontrol agents for several pests p. 322
Safety of natural enemy releases in greenhouses p. 323
Augmentative Release of Natural Enemies in Outdoor Crops p. 324
Trichogramma wasps for moth control p. 325
Use of predatory phytoseiid mites p. 331
Control of filth flies p. 332
Other examples of specialized agents p. 333
Generalist predators sold for non-specific problems p. 336
Other Targets and New Directions p. 339
Vertebrate Pests p. 341
Predators as vertebrate control agents p. 341
Parasites as vertebrate control agents p. 341
Pathogens as vertebrate control agents p. 343
New avenues for biological control of vertebrates p. 346
Conclusions p. 348
Expanding the Biological Control Horizon: New Purposes and New Targets p. 350
Targeting weeds and arthropod pests of natural areas p. 351
Targeting "non-traditional" invasive pests p. 351
Conclusions p. 354
Future Directions p. 356
Classical biological control p. 356
Conservation biological control p. 356
Augmentation biological control p. 357
Biopesticides p. 357
Conclusions p. 358
References p. 359
Index p. 448
Control of pests and weeds by natural enemies : an introduction to biological control /
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