Nutrition in the prevention and treatment of disease / 2nd ed.

Front Cover 1
Nutrition in the Prevention and Treatment of Disease 4
Copyright Page 5
Table of Contents 8
List of Contributors 16
Preface to the First Edition 20
Preface to the Second Edition 22
SECTION I Research Methodology 23
A. Assessment Methods for Research and Practice 23
CHAPTER 1 Dietary Assessment Methodology 25
I. Introduction 25
II. Dietary Assessment Methods 25
III. Dietary Assessment in Specific Situations 34
IV. Dietary Assessment in Special Populations 38
V. Selected Issues in Dietary Assessment Methods 40
References 44
CHAPTER 2 Assessment of Dietary Supplement Use 63
I. Introduction 63
II. Methods for Assessing Dietary Supplement Intake 66
III. Dietary Supplement Composition Databases for Analysis of Dietary Supplement Intake 70
IV. The Dietary Supplement Label 72
V. Authoritative Information and Resources about Dietary Supplements 73
VI. How to Report Problems with Dietary Supplement Intake 76
VII. Conclusion 76
References 76
CHAPTER 3 Physical Assessment of Nutritional Status 79
I. Introduction 79
II. Components of Clinical Assessment 79
III. Anthropometric Assessment 80
IV. Body Composition Assessment 84
V. Physical Manifestations of Malnutrition 85
VI. Functional Assessment 90
VII. Multicomponent Assessment Tools 91
VIII. Summary 92
References 92
CHAPTER 4 Energy Requirement Methodology 97
I. Introduction 97
II. Components of Energy Expenditure 97
III. Total Energy Expenditure 103
IV. Recommended Energy Intakes 106
References 107
B. Research and Applied Methods for Observational and Intervention Studies 111
CHAPTER 5 Application of Research Paradigms to Nutrition Practice 113
I. Introduction 113
II. Broad Research Areas 113
III. Evidence-Based Practice 115
IV. Translational Research 116
V. Summary 117
References 117
CHAPTER 6 Overview of Nutritional Epidemiology 119
I. Introduction 119
II. Principles of Exposure Measurement in Nutritional Epidemiology 121
III. Study Designs Used in Nutritional Epidemiology 123
IV. Interpretation of Cause and Effect in Nutritional Epidemiology 125
V. Obstacles to Finding Associations of Dietary Intake and Disease Risk 127
VI. Future Research Directions 130
References 130
CHAPTER 7 Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Dietary Data 135
I. Introduction 135
II. Analysis of Dietary Data 135
III. Presentation of Data 139
IV. Interpretation of Data 140
V. Conclusion 144
References 144
CHAPTER 8 Current Theoretical Bases for Nutrition Intervention and Their Uses 149
I. Introduction 149
II. The Importance of Understanding Influences on Dietary Behavior 149
III. What Is Theory? 150
IV. Explanatory and Change Theories 150
V. Unique Features of Dietary Behavior to Consider When Using Theory 150
VI. Important Theories and Their Key Constructs 152
VII. Findings Regarding Applications of Theory to Nutritional Behavior 155
VIII. Constructs and Issues across Theories 155
IX. Implications and Opportunities 157
References 158
CHAPTER 9 Nutrition Intervention: Lessons from Clinical Trials 161
I. Introduction 161
II. Conceptual Models of Motivation 161
III. Theories Used in Achieving Dietary Behavior Change in Clinical Trials 162
IV. Summary 169
References 169
CHAPTER 10 Tools and Techniques to Facilitate Nutrition Intervention 171
I. Introduction 171
II. The Nutrition Education and Counseling Process 171
III. The Teaching/Learning Process 172
IV. Nutrition Education Techniques 174
V. Behavior Change Techniques 177
VI. Conclusion 187
References 188
CHAPTER 11 Evaluation of Nutrition Interventions 191
I. Introduction 191
II. Overview: Types of Nutrition Intervention Program Evaluations 191
III. Outcomes or Endpoints Used to Assess Intervention Effectiveness 192
IV. Design of Nutrition Intervention Evaluations 193
V. Measurement Issues When Assessing Dietary Change and Other Intervention Outcomes 196
VI. Dietary Assessment Instruments and Their Applicability for Intervention Evaluation 198
VII. Conclusion 203
References 203
CHAPTER 12 Biomarkers and Their Use in Nutrition Intervention 209
I. Introduction 209
II. Biomarkers of Dietary Intake or Exposure 209
III. Functional Biomarkers 214
IV. Biomarkers of Genetic Susceptibility 218
V. Criteria for Selecting and Using Biomarkers 218
VI. Summary 220
References 220
SECTION II Nutrition for Health Maintenance, Prevention, and Disease-Specific Treatment 225
A. Food and Nutrient Intake for Health 225
CHAPTER 13 Nutrition Guidelines to Maintain Health 227
I. Introduction 227
II. Guidelines for Nutrient Adequacy and Safety 227
III. Guidelines for Healthy Food Choices 230
IV. Beyond Food and Nutrient Guidelines: Physical Activity Guidelines 240
V. Summary 242
References 243
CHAPTER 14 Nutrition, Health Policy, and the Problem of Proof 247
I. Background Considerations 247
II. The Matter of Proof 249
III. Approaches 252
IV. Conclusion 255
References 256
CHAPTER 15 Choline and Neural Development 259
I. Introduction 259
II. Choline Metabolism and Biochemistry 259
III. Choline in Foods and Dietary Requirements 260
IV. Choline and Neural Development 261
V. Long-Lasting Consequences of Prenatal Choline Availability 264
VI. Implications for Human Brain Development 265
References 265
CHAPTER 16 Antioxidants in Health and Disease 271
I. Introduction 271
II. Antioxidants in Disease Etiology, Treatment, and Prevention 276
III. Overall Conclusion and Discussion 284
References 285
CHAPTER 17 Nutrients and Food Constituents in Cognitive Decline and Neurodegenerative Disease 291
I. Introduction 291
II. Gender Differences in Dementia 292
III. Oxidative Stress in Aging 293
IV. Inflammation 294
V. Age\u2013Alzheimer Disease Parallels 295
VI. Polyphenol Supplementation and Reductions of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation 295
VII. Conclusion 299
References 300
CHAPTER 18 Diet and Supplements in the Prevention and Treatment of Eye Diseases 311
I. Introduction 311
II. Cataract 315
III. Age-Related Macular Degeneration 318
IV. Diabetic Retinopathy 323
V. Summary 326
References 326
CHAPTER 19 Nutrition Requirements for Athletes 339
I. Introduction 339
II. Energy Requirements for Athletes 339
III. Carbohydrate Requirements for Athletes 342
IV. Protein Requirements for Athletes 346
V. Micronutrient Requirements for Athletes 347
VI. Fluid Requirements for Athletes 348
VII. Nutrition and Training Adaptations 352
References 353
CHAPTER 20 Nutrition for Children with Special Health Care Needs 357
I. Introduction 357
II. The Role of Nutrition in Preventing Developmental Problems 358
III. The Functional Approach to Nutrition Assessment for Children with Special Needs 362
IV. Evidence-Based Interventions for Selected Conditions 366
V. Conclusion 370
References 370
B. Overweight and Obesity 375
CHAPTER 21 Genetics of Human Obesity 377
I. Introduction 377
II. Genetic Epidemiology of Human Obesity 377
III. Gene-Environment Interactions 378
IV. Gene-Gene Interactions 379
V. The Obesity Gene Map 379
VI. Single-Gene Obesity in Humans 380
VII. Rare Genetic Syndromes with Obesity as a Prominent Feature 383
VIII. Evidence from Linkage Studies of Obesity Phenotypes 383
IX. Studies of Candidate Genes for Obesity and Related Phenotypes 384
X. Clinical Implications of the Discovery of Obesity Genes 387
References 388
CHAPTER 22 Obesity: Overview of Treatments and Interventions 393
I. Introduction 393
II. Assessment of Overweight and Obesity 393
III. Lifestyle Modification 397
IV. Pharmaceutical Intervention 401
V. Surgical Treatment 404
VI. Special Issues in the Treatment of Pediatric Obesity 405
VII. Acute Weight Loss versus Maintaining Long-Term Weight Loss 406
VIII. The Future of Weight Management 407
References 407
CHAPTER 23 Obesity: The Role of Physical Activity in Adults 413
I. Introduction 413
II. Current Physical Activity Recommendations for Weight Loss and Prevention of Weight Regain 414
III. Relationship of Physical Activity to Obesity in Populations 415
IV. Energy Expenditure and Etiology of Obesity 417
V. Role of Physical Activity in Treatment (Weight Loss) of Overweight and Obesity: Evidence from Randomized Controlled Trials 418
VI. Conclusion 423
References 424
CHAPTER 24 Macronutrient Intake and the Control of Body Weight 429
I. Introduction 429
II. Fat Chance 429
III. Establishing Causal Links 431
IV. Is It Fat or Energy Density? 434
V. Are Carbohydrates the Culprit Responsible for Overweight? 435
VI. Energy Compensation for Fat and Sugar Substitutes 438
VII. Protein Paradox 440
VIII. Summary and Implications of the Research on Macronutrients and Intake 443
References 443
CHAPTER 25 Behavioral Risk Factors for Overweight and Obesity: Diet and Physical Activity 453
I. Introduction 453
II. Physical activity 454
III. Dietary Factors 459
IV. Summary and Public Health Recommendations 467
V. Conclusion 468
References 470
CHAPTER 26 Dietary Approaches to Exploit Energy Balance Utilities for Body Weight Control 479
I. Introduction 479
II. Does a Small Positive Energy Balance Lead to Substantive Weight Gain Over Time? 479
III. Mechanisms for Dietary Approaches to Moderate Energy Balance 481
IV. Conclusion 487
References 487
CHAPTER 27 Properties of Foods and Beverages That Influence Energy Intake and Body Weight 491
I. Introduction 491
II. Variety 491
III. Energy Density 493
IV. Portion Size 496
V. The Complex Eating Environment 499
References 501
C. Cardiovascular Disease 505
CHAPTER 28 Genetic Influences on Blood Lipids and Cardiovascular Disease Risk 507
I. Introduction 507
II. Exogenous Lipoprotein Pathway 508
III. Endogenous Lipoprotein Metabolism 517
IV. Reverse Cholesterol Transport 518
V. Conclusion 524
References 525
CHAPTER 29 The Role of Diet in the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease 537
I. Introduction 537
II. Dietary Fat 538
III. Dietary Carbohydrate 548
IV. Dietary Protein 551
V. Alcohol 553
VI. Dietary Cholesterol 554
VII. Plant Sterols/Stanols 555
VIII. Supplements 556
IX. Food-Based Guidance 557
X. Summary/Conclusion 561
References 561
CHAPTER 30 Nutrition, Lifestyle, and Hypertension 573
I. Introduction 573
II. Individual Nutrients and Blood Pressure 574
III. Other Dietary and Lifestyle Modifications 582
IV. Current Recommendations and Implementation 585
V. Summary 586
References 590
D. Diabetes Mellitus 597
CHAPTER 31 Obesity and the Risk for Diabetes 599
I. Introduction 599
II. Definitions and Classifications of Obesity and Diabetes 599
III. Why Are the Obese at Risk? 602
IV. Conclusion 608
References 608
CHAPTER 32 Nutrition Management of Diabetes Mellitus 615
I. Introduction 615
II. Energy Intake and Body Weight Management 616
III. Macronutrient Intake 617
IV. Selected Micronutrients 621
V. Conclusion 623
References 623
CHAPTER 33 Nutrition Management for Gestational Diabetes 629
I. Introduction 629
II. Screening and Diagnosis 631
III. Complications 631
IV. Nutrition Management 632
V. Clinical Outcomes 637
VI. Pharmacological Agents 638
VII. Physical Activity 639
VIII. Postpartum Follow-up 639
IX. Prevention 639
X. Conclusion 639
References 640
E. Cancer 643
CHAPTER 34 Interaction of Nutrition and Genes in Carcinogenesis 645
I. Introduction 645
II. Background and Definitions 645
III. Mechanisms of Diet\u2013Gene Interactions 647
IV. Methodological Issues 650
V. Diet\u2013Gene Interactions and Cancer 652
VI. Future Directions 654
References 654
CHAPTER 35 Nutrition and Cancers of the Breast, Endometrium, and Ovary 657
I. Introduction 657
II. Nutritional Factors and Breast Cancer 658
III. Endometrial Cancer 665
IV. Ovarian Cancer 668
V. Summary and Conclusion 669
References 670
CHAPTER 36 Nutrition and Prostate Cancer 681
I. Introduction 681
II. Descriptive Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer 682
III. Studies of Diet in Relation to Prostate Cancer 683
IV. Genetics and Gene\u2013Environment Interactions 689
V. Dietary Intervention Trials 690
VI. Conclusion and Implications for Prevention and Treatment 690
References 691
CHAPTER 37 Nutrition and Colon Cancer 705
I. Introduction 705
II. Model 1: Bile Acids, Dietary Components 707
III. Model 2: Cooked Foods 711
IV. Model 3: Insulin Resistance 712
V. Model 4: DNA Methylation 712
VI. Model 5: Cell Growth Regulators 713
VII. Food Intake Relationships 714
VIII. Prevention of Colon Cancer 716
References 717
F. Gastrointestinal Health and Disease 727
CHAPTER 38 Intestinal Microflora and Diet in Health 729
I. Introduction 729
II. Distribution and Diversity of the Human Intestinal Microflora 729
III. Bacterial Colonization, Succession, and Metabolism 731
IV. Functions of the GI Tract Microflora 733
V. Methodology for Studying Intestinal Microflora 735
VI. Influence of Diet on Intestinal Microflora 737
VII. Challenges in the Field 742
References 742
CHAPTER 39 Nutrition in Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Short Bowel Syndrome 751
I. Introduction 751
II. Inflammatory Bowel Disease 751
III. Short Bowel Syndrome 765
IV. Conclusion 771
References 772
CHAPTER 40 Nutrient Considerations in Lactose Intolerance 777
I. Introduction 777
II. Lactose in the Diet 777
III. Digestion of Lactose 778
IV. Loss of Lactase Activity 778
V. Diagnosis of Lactose Maldigestion 779
VI. Lactose Maldigestion and Intolerance Symptoms 782
VII. Lactose Digestion, Calcium, and Osteoporosis 782
VIII. Dietary Management for Lactose Maldigestion 783
IX. Gene Therapy for Lactose Intolerance 787
X. Summary 787
References 788
CHAPTER 41 Nutritional Considerations in the Management of Celiac Disease 793
I. Introduction 793
II. Symptoms of Celiac Disease 793
III. Diagnosis of Celiac Disease 797
IV. Treatment of Celiac Disease with a Gluten-Free Diet 799
V. Management of the Complications of Celiac Disease 801
VI. Summary 802
References 803
CHAPTER 42 Nutrition and Cystic Fibrosis 809
I. Overview of Cystic Fibrosis 809
II. Malnutrition in Cystic Fibrosis 811
III. Nutrition Assessment 814
IV. Nutrition Management 818
V. Conclusion 821
References 822
G. Bone Health and Disease 827
CHAPTER 43 Current Understanding of Vitamin D Metabolism, Nutritional Status, and Role in Disease Prevention 829
I. Introduction 829
II. Metabolism of Vitamin D 830
III. Sources of Vitamin D 835
IV. Vitamin D Nutritional Status Assessment 839
V. Dietary Requirements 847
VI. Safety of Vitamin D 849
VII. Conclusion 850
References 850
CHAPTER 44 Osteoporosis: The Early Years 855
I. Introduction 855
II. Acquiring Peak Bone Mass and Bone Strength 855
III. Skeletal Fragility in Children 857
IV. Nutrition and Development of Peak Bone Mass 859
V. Conclusion 869
References 869
CHAPTER 45 Osteoporosis 875
I. Introduction 875
II. The Skeleton 876
III. Adult Bone Maintenance 880
IV. Diagnosis of Osteoporosis 884
V. Osteoporosis Prevention and Treatment 886
VI. Conclusion 888
References 889
Appendix Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) 893
Index 899
Colour Plates 913