简介
Outlandish as it may seem to the uninitiated, the meaning of English cardinal numbers has been the object of many heated and fascinating debates. Notwithstanding the numerous important objections that have been formulated in the last three decades, the (neo-)Gricean, scalar account is still the standard semantic description of numerals.In this book, Bultinck writes the history of this implicature-driven approach and demonstrates that it suffers from methodological insecurity and postulates highly non-conventional meanings of numerals as their "literal meaning", while it confuses the level of lexical semantics with that of utterances and cannot deal with a large number of counter-examples. Relying on the results of an extensive corpus-based analysis, an alternative account of the meaning of English cardinals and the ways in which their interpretation is influenced by other linguistic elements is presented. As such, this analysis constitutes a prism that offers todays linguist an iridescent history of one of the most fascinating, if often misconstrued, topics in contemporary meaning research: the conversational implicatures." Bert Bultinck's book presents rich empirical data, backed by sound theoretical understanding, which results in a strong challenge to standard neo-Gricean approaches and makes a valuable contribution to research on the semantics and pragmatics of number terms." - Robyn Carston, University College London, UK. "Bultinck's "Numerous Meanings" is a unique contribution to the semantics and pragmatics of cardinal numbers, taking Grice's theory of implicatures to its limits, and raising numerous and original questions about meaning along the way." - Jef Verschueren, University of Antwerp, Belgium.
目录
Cover 1
Contents 8
Acknowledgements 12
Conventions 14
Introduction 16
The Gricean theory of implicatures 20
Introduction 20
Implicatures according to Paul Grice 23
Meaning 23
Logic and conversation 25
Formalists and informalists 25
Maxims and implicatures 27
Rescuing logic in conversation (1): therefore 30
Rescuing logic in conversation (2): or 32
Rescuing logic in conversation (3): if... then 37
Conclusion 38
Implicatures according to neo-Griceans and critics 39
Versions of the conversational principles and their indeterminacy 40
Tests of conversational implicatures 45
Formalizations 53
Scales 53
The projection problem 60
The architecture of meaning 62
Consequences for the analysis of meaning 72
Three decades of Gricean numerals 76
Minimalism and implicatures: tradition and evolution 76
Horn's original analysis 76
Existentialist minimalism 85
Salience and activation 88
Underspecification 95
Early approaches and formulations 95
Underspecification, underdeterminacy and enrichment 103
Marginal positions: punctual semantics and ambiguity 107
Summary and 'absolute value' 112
General corpus analysis of the forms and functions of English cardinals 118
Prolegomenon: The English lexical category \ 118
Semantics 119
Open - closed class 120
Syntax 120
Conclusion 123
Forms of two 123
Adnominal and pronominal uses of two 125
Analysis of the NP containing two 127
Restrictors 131
Complex constructions 132
Functions of two: corpus analysis 132
Cardinal two 133
Two as a label 134
Standard examples 134
Marginal labels: Counting the seconds one two three 135
Number two 139
Clockwise: two in indications of temporal location 144
Pronominal two and ellipsis 146
Standard examples 146
Elliptical two as the predicate of a copula 147
Divide into two 150
Degrees of pronominality: what about you two? 151
Two as the name of a symbol 155
Mathematical uses of two 155
Discourse-structural two 158
Other uses of two 159
Relationship between adnominal form and cardinal function 160
Degrees of prominence of cardinality 161
Domains of use 164
A special case: Zero 169
Zero as adnominal 170
Zero as head 172
Comparison of two and zero 177
Conclusion 180
'At least n', 'exactly n', 'at most n' and 'absolute value' readings 182
Methodology 182
Absolute values and 'exactly n1 values of two in N CN and pronominal uses 190
Increasing the number of positions - the concept 'absolute value' 190
'Absolute value' and 'exactly n' readings of two in the corpus: a continuum 196
Syntactic function of the NP containing two 205
Two in adverbial phrases 206
Two in direct object phrases 214
Two in subject phrases and gradations of 'absolute value' 216
Two in predicate phrases and the \ 219
Hierarchy of syntactic functions 221
Comparison with Discourse Topic Theory: Van Kuppevelt (1996) and Scharten (1997) 225
Other determinants of value interpretation 229
Relative strength of factors influencing value interpretation 236
Influence of pronominality and reduced cardinality 237
Summary 240
'At least / more than n' and 'at most / less than n' uses of two in the corpus and the influence of modality 243
Neo-Gricean arguments in the corpus analysis of two 255
Defeasibility: the cancellation and suspension tests 255
The suspension test 255
The cancellation test 264
Redundancy 268
Negation 277
Conclusion 290
Small numbers, large numbers, round numbers and non-round numbers 292
Ten 292
Twenty-two 296
One thousand 301
Restrictors 305
Survey of restrictors: from 'more than' to 'less than' 305
\ 311
Approximativity and exactness 313
Only and just 315
Conclusion 318
References 326
Index 336
Contents 8
Acknowledgements 12
Conventions 14
Introduction 16
The Gricean theory of implicatures 20
Introduction 20
Implicatures according to Paul Grice 23
Meaning 23
Logic and conversation 25
Formalists and informalists 25
Maxims and implicatures 27
Rescuing logic in conversation (1): therefore 30
Rescuing logic in conversation (2): or 32
Rescuing logic in conversation (3): if... then 37
Conclusion 38
Implicatures according to neo-Griceans and critics 39
Versions of the conversational principles and their indeterminacy 40
Tests of conversational implicatures 45
Formalizations 53
Scales 53
The projection problem 60
The architecture of meaning 62
Consequences for the analysis of meaning 72
Three decades of Gricean numerals 76
Minimalism and implicatures: tradition and evolution 76
Horn's original analysis 76
Existentialist minimalism 85
Salience and activation 88
Underspecification 95
Early approaches and formulations 95
Underspecification, underdeterminacy and enrichment 103
Marginal positions: punctual semantics and ambiguity 107
Summary and 'absolute value' 112
General corpus analysis of the forms and functions of English cardinals 118
Prolegomenon: The English lexical category \ 118
Semantics 119
Open - closed class 120
Syntax 120
Conclusion 123
Forms of two 123
Adnominal and pronominal uses of two 125
Analysis of the NP containing two 127
Restrictors 131
Complex constructions 132
Functions of two: corpus analysis 132
Cardinal two 133
Two as a label 134
Standard examples 134
Marginal labels: Counting the seconds one two three 135
Number two 139
Clockwise: two in indications of temporal location 144
Pronominal two and ellipsis 146
Standard examples 146
Elliptical two as the predicate of a copula 147
Divide into two 150
Degrees of pronominality: what about you two? 151
Two as the name of a symbol 155
Mathematical uses of two 155
Discourse-structural two 158
Other uses of two 159
Relationship between adnominal form and cardinal function 160
Degrees of prominence of cardinality 161
Domains of use 164
A special case: Zero 169
Zero as adnominal 170
Zero as head 172
Comparison of two and zero 177
Conclusion 180
'At least n', 'exactly n', 'at most n' and 'absolute value' readings 182
Methodology 182
Absolute values and 'exactly n1 values of two in N CN and pronominal uses 190
Increasing the number of positions - the concept 'absolute value' 190
'Absolute value' and 'exactly n' readings of two in the corpus: a continuum 196
Syntactic function of the NP containing two 205
Two in adverbial phrases 206
Two in direct object phrases 214
Two in subject phrases and gradations of 'absolute value' 216
Two in predicate phrases and the \ 219
Hierarchy of syntactic functions 221
Comparison with Discourse Topic Theory: Van Kuppevelt (1996) and Scharten (1997) 225
Other determinants of value interpretation 229
Relative strength of factors influencing value interpretation 236
Influence of pronominality and reduced cardinality 237
Summary 240
'At least / more than n' and 'at most / less than n' uses of two in the corpus and the influence of modality 243
Neo-Gricean arguments in the corpus analysis of two 255
Defeasibility: the cancellation and suspension tests 255
The suspension test 255
The cancellation test 264
Redundancy 268
Negation 277
Conclusion 290
Small numbers, large numbers, round numbers and non-round numbers 292
Ten 292
Twenty-two 296
One thousand 301
Restrictors 305
Survey of restrictors: from 'more than' to 'less than' 305
\ 311
Approximativity and exactness 313
Only and just 315
Conclusion 318
References 326
Index 336
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