CONTENTS
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Long Haul Fiber Networks
1.2 Historical Development of Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers
1.3 From Glass to Systems – Outline
2 OPTICAL FIBER FABRICATION
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conventional Communication Fiber
2.3 Rare Earth Doped Fibers
2.3.1 Rare Earth Vapor Phase Delivery Methods
2.3.2 Rare Earth Solution-Doping Methods
2.3.3 Rod and Tube Methods
2.4 Pump-Signal Interaction Methods
2.4.1 Evanescent Field
2.4.2 Double Clad Fiber Design
2.5 Compositions
2.6 Physical Properties
2.6.1 Fiber Refractive Index and Composition Profile
2.6.2 Strength and Reliability
2.6.3 Alternate Glass Host Fabrication
3 COMPONENTS AND INTEGRATION
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Fiber Connectors
3.3 Fusion Splicing
3.4 Pump and Signal Combiners
3.5 Isolators
3.6 Circulators
3.7 Filters
3.8 Fiber Gratings
3.8.1 Introduction
3.8.2 Applications of Bragg Gratings
3.8.3 Long Period Gratings
3.9 Signal Multiplexers and Demultiplexers
3.10 Signal Add/Drop Components
3.11 Dispersion Compensation Components
3.12 Integrated Components
3.13 Pump Lasers
4 RARE EARTH IONS – INTRODUCTORY SURVEY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Atomic Physics of the Rare Earths
4.2.1 Introduction – The 4f Electron Shell
4.2.2 The "Puzzle" of 4f Electron Optical Spectra
4.2.3 Semiempirical Atomic and Crystal Field Hamiltonians
4.2.4 Energy Level Fitting
4.3 Optical Spectra of Rare Earth Ions
4.3.1 The Character of 4f[sup(N)] – 4f[sup(N)] Optical Transitions
4.3.2 Intensities of One-Photon Transitions – Judd-Ofelt Theory
4.4 Fundamental Properties
4.4.1 Transition Cross Sections
4.4.2 Lifetimes
4.4.3 Linewidths and Broadening
4.5 Spectroscopy of the Er[sup(3+)] Ion
4.5.1 Lifetimes
4.5.2 Er[sup(3+)] Spectra, Cross Sections, and Linewidths
4.6 Er[sup(3+)] -Er[sup(3+)] Interaction Effects
5 ERBIUM-DOPED FIBER AMPLIFIERS – AMPLIFIER BASICS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Amplification in Three-Level Systems–Basics
5.2.1 Three-Level Rate Equations
5.2.2 The Overlap Factor
5.3 Reduction of the Three-Level System to the Two-Level System
5.3.1 Validity of the Two-Level Approach
5.3.2 Generalized Rate Equations
5.4 Amplified Spontaneous Emission
5.5 Analytical Solutions to the Two-Level System
6 ERBIUM-DOPED FIBER AMPLIFIERS – MODELING AND COMPLEX EFFECTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Absorption and Emission Cross Sections
6.3 Gain and ASE Modeling
6.3.1 Model Equations – Homogeneous Broadening
6.3.2 Average Inversion Relationship
6.3.3 Inhomogeneous Broadening
6.4 Amplifier Simulations
6.4.1 Signal Gain, ASE Generation, and Population Inversion
6.4.2 Gain as a Function of Fiber Length
6.4.3 Spectral Profile of the ASE
6.4.4 Small Signal Spectral Gain and Noise Modeling
6.4.5 Saturation Modeling – Signal Gain and Noise Figure
6.4.6 Power Amplifier Modeling
6.4.7 Effective Parameter Modeling
6.5 Transverse Mode Models – Erbium Confinement Effect
6.6 Excited–State Absorption Effects
6.6.1 Model Equations
6.6.2 Modeling Results in the Presence of ESA
6.6.3 800 nm Band Pumping
6.7 Er[sup(3+)] -Er[sup(3+)] Interaction Effects
6.7.1 Upconversion Effects on Amplifier Performance
6.7.2 Pair Induced Quenching
7 OPTICAL AMPLIFIERS IN FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS – THEORY
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Optical Noise: Device Aspects
7.2.1 Classical Derivation of Optical Amplifier Noise
7.2.2 Noise at the Output of an Optical Amplifier
7.2.3 Comparison of Optical Amplifier Devices
7.3 Optical Noise: System Aspects
7.3.1 Receivers
7.3.2 Bit Error Rate Calculations - Direct Detection
7.3.3 Optical Preamplifiers – Noise Figure and Sensitivity
7.3.4 Optical Inline Amplifiers - Amplifier Chains
7.3.5 Noise in Optical Power Amplifiers
7.3.6 Nonlinearity Issues
7.3.7 Analog Applications
8 AMPLIFIER CHARACTERIZATION AND DESIGN ISSUES
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Basic Amplifier Measurement Techniques
8.2.1 Gain Measurements
8.2.2 Power Conversion Efficiency
8.2.3 Noise Figure Measurements
8.3 Amplifier Design Issues
8.3.1 Copropagating and Counterpropagating Pumping Issues
8.3.2 Choice of Fiber Lengths and Geometries for Various Applications
8.3.3 Multistage Amplifiers
8.3.4 Bidirectional Amplifiers
8.3.5 Power Amplifiers
8.3.6 WDM Amplifier Design Issues
8.3.7 Distributed Amplifiers
8.3.8 Waveguide Amplifiers
9 SYSTEM IMPLEMENTATIONS OF AMPLIFIERS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 System Demonstrations and Issues
9.2.1 Preamplifiers
9.2.2 Inline Amplifiers - Single Channel Transmission
9.2.3 Mine Amplifiers - WDM Transmission
9.2.4 Repeaterless Systems
9.2.5 Remote Pumping
9.2.6 Analog Applications
9.2.7 Gain Peaking and Self-Filtering
9.2.8 Polarization Issues
9.2.9 Transient Effects
9.3 Soliton Systems
9.3.1 Principles
9.3.2 System Results and Milestones
10 FOUR LEVEL FIBER AMPLIFIERS FOR 1.3 μM AMPLIFICATION
10.1 Introduction
10.1.1 Gain in a Four-Level System
10.2 Pr[sup(3+)] -doped Fiber Amplifiers
10.2.1 Introduction
10.2.2 Spectroscopic Properties
10.2.3 Gain Results for Pr[sup(3+)] -doped Fiber Amplifiers
10.2.4 Modeling of the Pr[sup(3+)] -doped Fiber Amplifier Gain
10.2.5 System Results
10.3 Nd[sup(3+)] -Doped Fiber Amplifiers
10.3.1 Introduction
10.3.2 Gain Results for Nd[sup(3+)] -Doped Fiber Amplifiers
10.3.3 Modeling of the Nd[sup(3+)] -Doped Fiber Amplifier Gain
Appendix A
A.1 OASIX? Amplifier Simulation Software
A.2 Introduction
A.2.1 System Requirements
A.2.2 Installing OASIX?
A.2.3 Starting OASIX?
A.2.4 What to do next
A.3 A Quick Overview and Tour
A.3.1 Fibers and Modeling Parameters
A.3.2 Saving a Simulation Configuration
A.3.3 Device Types Simulated
A.3.4 Data Entry and Device Conventions
A.3.5 Screens and Menus
A.3.6 Simulation Looping and Output Modes
A.4 Screen Contents and Simulation Methodology
A.4.1 Main/Entry Screen
A.4.2 Single-Stage Setup Screen
A.4.3 Additional Signals Screen
A.4.4 Output Setup Screen
A.4.5 Simulation Status Box
A.5 Simulation Looping Structure
A.5.1 Specifying Loop Parameters
A.5.2 Choosing Loop Order
A.5.3 Linear or Logarithmic Looping
A.5.4 Multiple Parameters Varied in a Loop
A.5.5 Influence on Output Format
A.5.6 Output Modes
A.6 Sample Simulations
A.6.1 Single-Run, Single-Stage EDFA
A.6.2 Multiple-Run, Single-Stage EDFA
A.6.3 Other simulations to try
A.7 Computation of Signal Related Quantities
A.8 Computation of ASE Related Quantities
A.9 Basic Operating Principles
A.9.1 Simulation Speed and the Number of Waves
A.9.2 Causes and Remedies for Convergence Failure
A.10 Comment on the treatment of losses
INDEX
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Y
Z