Preface p. ix
Introduction p. 3
The Nature of Geography p. 4
What Is Geography? p. 4
Evolution of the Discipline p. 6
Some Core Geographic Concepts p. 8
Location, Direction, and Distance p. 9
Location p. 9
Direction p. 10
Distance p. 10
Size and Scale p. 11
Physical and Cultural Attributes p. 13
Attributes of Place Are Always Changing p. 14
Interrelations between Places p. 14
Place Similarity and Regions p. 16
Geography's Themes and Standards p. 17
Organization of This Book p. 19
Key Words p. 21
For Review & Consideration p. 22
Selected References p. 22
Maps p. 25
Maps as the Tools of Geography p. 26
Locating Points on a Sphere p. 27
The Grid System p. 27
The Global Positioning System p. 28
Map Projections p. 30
Area p. 30
Shape p. 31
Distance p. 31
Direction p. 31
Scale p. 33
Types of Maps p. 33
Topographic Maps and Terrain Representation p. 34
Thematic Maps and Data Representation p. 38
Point Symbols p. 38
Area Symbols p. 39
Line Symbols p. 40
Deceptive Practices p. 40
Remote Sensing p. 42
Aerial Photography p. 42
Nonphotographic Imagery p. 42
Remote-Sensing Techniques p. 42
Satellite Imagery p. 44
Geographic Information Systems p. 45
The Geographic Database p. 47
Applications of GIS p. 47
Summary p. 49
Key Words p. 50
For Review & Consideration p. 50
Selected References p. 51
The Earth Science Tradition p. 52
Physical Geography: Landforms p. 55
Earth Materials p. 56
Igneous Rocks p. 56
Sedimentary Rocks p. 57
Metamorphic Rocks p. 58
Geologic Time p. 58
Movements of the Continents p. 58
Tectonic Forces p. 62
Diastrophism p. 62
Broad Warping p. 62
Folding p. 62
Faulting p. 63
Volcanism p. 66
Gradational Processes p. 68
Weathering p. 68
Mechanical Weathering p. 68
Chemical Weathering p. 69
Mass Movement p. 70
Erosional Agents and Deposition p. 71
Running Water p. 71
Stream Landscapes p. 72
Groundwater p. 74
Glaciers p. 75
Waves, Currents, and Coastal Landforms p. 76
Wind p. 80
Landform Regions p. 81
Summary p. 83
Key Words p. 83
For Review & Consideration p. 84
Selected References p. 84
Physical Geography: Weather and Climate p. 87
Air Temperature p. 89
Earth Inclination p. 89
Reflection and Reradiation p. 91
Lapse Rate p. 92
Air Pressure and Winds p. 92
Pressure Gradient Force p. 94
The Convection System p. 95
Land and Sea Breezes p. 95
Mountain and Valley Breezes p. 96
The Coriolis Effect p. 96
The Frictional Effect p. 97
The Global Air-Circulation Pattern p. 97
Ocean Currents p. 98
Moisture in the Atmosphere p. 99
Types of Precipitation p. 101
Storms p. 102
Climate, Soils, and Vegetation p. 104
Soils and Climate p. 104
Soil Formation p. 104
Soil Profiles and Horizons p. 107
Soil Properties p. 108
Soil Classification p. 110
Natural Vegetation and Climate p. 110
Succession p. 110
Natural Vegetation Regions p. 110
Climate Regions p. 112
Tropical Climates p. 114
Tropical Rain Forest p. 114
Savanna p. 114
Dryland Climates p. 116
Hot Deserts p. 116
Midlatitude Deserts and Semideserts p. 118
Humid Midlatitude Climates p. 118
Mediterranean Climate p. 119
Humid Subtropical Climate p. 120
Marine West Coast Climate p. 121
Humid Continental Climate p. 122
Subarctic and Arctic Climates p. 123
Climatic Change p. 123
Long-Term Climatic Change p. 124
Short-Term Climatic Change p. 125
The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming p. 126
Summary p. 129
Key Words p. 129
For Review & Consideration p. 129
Selected References p. 130
The Geography of Natural Resources p. 133
Resource Terminology p. 135
Renewable Resources p. 135
Nonrenewable Resources p. 135
Resource Reserves p. 136
Energy Resources and Industrialization p. 137
Nonrenewable Energy Resources p. 137
Crude Oil p. 138
Coal p. 141
Natural Gas p. 143
Oil Shale and Tar Sands p. 144
Nuclear Energy p. 146
Nuclear Fission p. 146
Nuclear Fusion p. 147
Renewable Energy Resources p. 148
Biomass Fuels p. 148
Wood p. 148
Waste p. 148
Hydropower p. 148
Solar Energy p. 150
Other Renewable Energy Resources p. 152
Geothermal Energy p. 152
Wind Power p. 154
Nonfuel Mineral Resources p. 154
The Distribution of Nonfuel Minerals p. 156
Copper: A Case Study p. 157
Land Resources p. 159
Soils p. 159
Wetlands p. 163
Forest Resources p. 164
U.S. National Forests p. 166
Tropical Rain Forests p. 167
Resource Management p. 169
Summary p. 172
Key Words p. 173
For Review & Consideration p. 173
Selected References p. 173
The Culture-Environment Tradition p. 176
Population Geography p. 179
Population Growth p. 180
Some Population Definitions p. 182
Birth Rates p. 182
Fertility Rates p. 183
Death Rates p. 186
Population Pyramids p. 190
Natural Increase p. 193
Doubling Times p. 193
The Demographic Transition p. 194
The Western Experience p. 196
A Divided World Converging p. 198
The Demographic Equation p. 200
Population Relocation p. 200
Immigration Impacts p. 200
World Population Distribution p. 200
Population Density p. 204
Overpopulation p. 205
Urbanization p. 207
Population Data and Projections p. 207
Population Data p. 207
Population Projections p. 209
Population Controls p. 210
Population Prospects p. 212
Summary p. 213
Key Words p. 214
For Review & Consideration p. 214
Selected References p. 215
Cultural Geography p. 217
Components of Culture p. 218
Interaction of People and Environment p. 220
Environments as Controls p. 220
Human Impacts p. 221
Subsystems of Culture p. 221
The Technological Subsystem p. 222
The Sociological Subsystem p. 226
The Ideological Subsystem p. 228
Culture Change p. 229
Innovation p. 230
Diffusion p. 230
Acculturation p. 233
Cultural Diversity p. 235
Language p. 236
Language Spread and Change p. 237
Standard and Variant Languages p. 238
Language and Culture p. 242
Religion p. 246
Classification and Distribution of Religions p. 246
The Principal Religions p. 248
Judaism p. 248
Christianity p. 250
Islam p. 253
Hinduism p. 254
Buddhism p. 255
East Asian Ethnic Religions p. 257
Ethnicity p. 257
Gender and Culture p. 259
Other Aspects of Diversity p. 261
Summary p. 263
Key Words p. 264
For Review & Consideration p. 265
Selected References p. 265
Spatial Interaction p. 267
The Definition of Spatial Interaction p. 269
Distance and Spatial Interaction p. 269
Barriers to Interaction p. 269
Spatial Interaction and Innovation p. 270
Individual Activity Space p. 271
Stage in Life p. 274
Mobility p. 275
Opportunities p. 275
Diffusion and Innovation p. 275
Contagious Diffusion p. 276
Hierarchical Diffusion p. 277
Spatial Interaction and Technology p. 278
Automobiles p. 278
Telecommunications p. 279
Migration p. 281
Types of Migration p. 281
Incentives to Migrate p. 282
Barriers to Migration p. 286
Patterns of Migration p. 289
Globalization p. 291
Economic Integration p. 292
International Banking p. 292
Transnational Corporations p. 292
Global Marketing p. 293
Political Integration p. 295
Cultural Integration p. 295
Summary p. 296
Key Words p. 296
For Review & Consideration p. 296
Selected References p. 297
Political Geography p. 299
National Political Systems p. 301
States, Nations, and Nation-States p. 301
Evolution of the Modern State p. 303
Geographic Characteristics of States p. 303
Size p. 303
Shape p. 305
Location p. 305
Cores and Capitals p. 307
Boundaries: The Limits of the State p. 310
Natural and Artificial Boundaries p. 311
Boundaries Classified by Settlement p. 311
Boundaries as Sources of Conflict p. 312
Centripetal Forces: Promoting State Cohesion p. 316
Nationalism p. 316
Unifying Institutions p. 316
Organization and Administration p. 317
Transportation and Communication p. 317
Centrifugal Forces: Challenges to State Authority p. 318
Cooperation among States p. 323
Supranationalism p. 323
The United Nations and Its Agencies p. 324
Maritime Boundaries p. 325
An International Law of the Sea p. 325
UN Affiliates p. 326
Regional Alliances p. 327
Economic Alliances p. 327
Military and Political Alliances p. 329
Local and Regional Political Organization p. 329
The Geography of Representation: The Districting Problem p. 330
The Fragmentation of Political Power p. 333
Summary p. 335
Key Words p. 336
For Review & Consideration p. 336
Selected References p. 337
The Locational Tradition p. 338
Economic Geography p. 341
The Classification of Economic Activity and Economies p. 342
Categories of Activity p. 343
Types of Economic Systems p. 344
Primary Activities: Agriculture p. 345
Subsistence Agriculture p. 348
Extensive Subsistence Agriculture p. 348
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture p. 350
Expanding Crop Production p. 351
Intensification and the Green Revolution p. 352
Commercial Agriculture p. 353
Production Controls p. 354
A Model of Agricultural Location p. 355
Intensive Commercial Agriculture p. 357
Extensive Commercial Agriculture p. 357
Special Crops p. 359
Agriculture in Planned Economies p. 360
Other Primary Activities p. 361
Fishing p. 361
Forestry p. 363
Mining and Quarrying p. 363
Trade in Primary Products p. 364
Secondary Activities: Manufacturing p. 367
Industrial Locational Models p. 367
Other Locational Considerations p. 369
Transport Characteristics p. 369
Agglomeration Economies p. 370
Just-in-Time and Flexible Production p. 370
Comparative Advantage p. 371
Imposed Considerations p. 373
Transnational Corporations (TNCs) p. 373
World Manufacturing Patterns and Trends p. 375
High-Tech Patterns p. 376
Tertiary and Beyond p. 378
Tertiary Services p. 380
Beyond Tertiary p. 381
Services in World Trade p. 381
Summary p. 384
Key Words p. 385
For Review & Consideration p. 385
Selected References p. 385
Urban Geography p. 389
An Urbanizing World p. 391
The Functions of Urban Areas p. 394
The Location of Urban Settlements p. 396
The Economic Base p. 398
Systems of Urban Settlements p. 400
The Urban Hierarchy p. 400
World Cities p. 400
Rank-Size and Primacy p. 401
Urban Influence Zones p. 402
Network Cities p. 402
Towns in Agricultural Areas p. 404
Inside the City p. 405
Competitive Bidding for Land p. 405
Land Values and Population Density p. 406
Models of Urban Land Use Structure p. 408
Social Areas of Cities p. 409
Social Status p. 410
Family Status p. 410
Ethnicity p. 411
Institutional Controls p. 411
Suburbanization in the United States p. 413
Central City Change p. 414
Constricted Central Cities p. 414
Expanding Central Cities p. 420
World Urban Diversity p. 421
The Anglo American City p. 421
The West European City p. 421
The East European City p. 423
Cities in the Developing World p. 424
Summary p. 427
Key Words p. 427
For Review & Consideration p. 427
Selected References p. 428
Human Impact on the Environment p. 431
Ecosystems p. 433
Impact on Water p. 433
Availability of Water p. 434
Modification of Streams p. 436
Water Quality p. 437
Agricultural Sources of Water Pollution p. 439
Fertilizers p. 439
Biocides p. 439
Animal Wastes p. 439
Other Sources of Water Pollution p. 440
Industry p. 440
Mining p. 441
Municipalities and Residences p. 441
Controlling Water Pollution p. 442
Impact on Air and Climate p. 442
Air Pollutants p. 442
Factors Affecting Air Pollution p. 443
Acid Rain p. 444
Photochemical Smog p. 446
Depletion of the Ozone Layer p. 446
Controlling Air Pollution p. 448
Impact on Landforms p. 449
Landforms Produced by Excavation p. 449
Landforms Produced by Dumping p. 450
Formation of Surface Depressions p. 451
Impact on Plants and Animals p. 451
Habitat Disruption p. 452
Hunting and Commercial Exploitation p. 452
Exotic Species p. 453
Poisoning and Contamination p. 455
Solid-Waste Disposal p. 456
Municipal Waste p. 456
Landfills p. 457
Incineration p. 458
Source Reduction and Recycling p. 459
Hazardous Waste p. 460
Summary p. 463
Key Words p. 463
For Review & Consideration p. 463
Selected References p. 464
The Area Analysis Tradition p. 466
The Regional Concept p. 469
The Nature of Regions p. 470
The Structure of This Chapter p. 472
Regions in the Earth Science Tradition p. 472
Landforms as Regions p. 472
Dynamic Regions in Weather and Climate p. 473
Natural Resource Regions p. 475
Regions in the Culture-Environment Tradition p. 476
Population as Regional Focus p. 477
Language as Region p. 478
Mental Regions p. 479
Political Regions p. 480
Regions in the Locational Tradition p. 482
Economic Regions p. 482
Urban Regions p. 484
Ecosystems as Regions p. 485
Summary p. 487
Key Words p. 487
For Review & Consideration p. 488
Selected References p. 488
Appendices p. 489
Glossary p. 504
Index p. 517