Preface p. xviii
Introduction: Opening the Conversation p. 1
The Social Construction of Inequality p. 2
Feminism-Feminisms p. 3
Features of Gendered Lives p. 4
Becoming Aware p. 7
Why I Wrote This Book p. 8
Changes in This Edition p. 10
Communication as the Fulcrum of Change p. 12
The Challenge of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture p. 13
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 14
Reflection and Discussion p. 14
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 14
Conceptual Foundations
The Study of Communication, Gender, and Culture p. 15
Communication, Gender, and Culture as an Area of Study p. 15
Expanded Knowledge of Gender, Communication, and Culture p. 16
The Value of Studying Communication, Gender, and Culture p. 16
The Meaning of Gender in a Transitional Era p. 17
Confusing Attitudes p. 17
Differences Between Women and Men p. 18
Relationships Among Gender, Culture, and Communication p. 20
Sex p. 20
Gender p. 23
Culture p. 29
Communication p. 31
Communication is a dynamic process p. 31
Communication is systemic p. 31
Communication has two levels of meaning p. 32
Meanings are created through human interaction with symbols p. 33
Summary p. 34
Key Terms p. 35
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 36
Reflection and Discussion p. 36
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 36
Theoretical Approaches to Gender Development p. 37
Theoretical Approaches to Gender p. 37
Biological Theories of Gender p. 39
Interpersonal Theories of Gender p. 45
Psychodynamic Theories of Gender Development p. 45
Psychological Theories of Gender Development p. 48
Social learning theory p. 48
Cognitive development theory p. 48
Cultural Theories of Gender p. 50
Anthropology p. 50
Symbolic Interactionism p. 52
Standpoint Theory p. 55
Summary p. 58
Key Terms p. 58
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 59
Reflection and Discussion p. 59
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 59
The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Women's Movements in America p. 60
The Three Waves of Women's Movements in America p. 61
The First Wave of Women's Movements in the United States p. 61
The Women's Rights Movement p. 61
The Cult of Domesticity p. 63
The Second Wave of Women's Movements in the United States p. 65
Radical Feminism p. 65
Lesbian Feminism p. 68
Separatism p. 69
Revalorism p. 71
Ecofeminism p. 72
Liberal Feminism p. 73
Womanism p. 76
Multiracial Feminism p. 77
Power Feminism p. 79
The Third Wave of Women's Movements in the United States p. 80
Remaking Solidarity to Incorporate Differences among Women p. 81
Building Coalitions p. 81
Integrating Theory into Everyday Practices p. 82
The Political Is Personal p. 82
Celebrating Girl Culture p. 83
Antifeminism: The Backlash p. 83
The First Wave: The Antisuffrage Movement p. 84
The Second Wave: Fascinating, Total Women p. 84
The Second Wave: The STOP ERA Campaign p. 84
The Third Wave: Surrendered Wives and the War against Boys and Men p. 85
The Contradictory Claims of Antifeminism p. 86
Summary p. 86
Key Terms p. 87
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 87
Reflection and Discussion p. 87
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 87
The Rhetorical Shaping of Gender: Men's Movements in America p. 89
Profeminist Men's Movements p. 90
Nomas p. 93
Men's Antiviolence Groups p. 95
The White Ribbon Campaign p. 95
Mentors in Violence Prevention p. 97
Masculinist Men's Movements p. 98
The Men's Rights Movement p. 99
Fathers' Rights Groups p. 101
Mythopoetic Men p. 102
Promise Keepers p. 105
The Million Man March p. 109
Summary p. 110
Key Terms p. 111
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 111
Reflection and Discussion p. 112
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 112
Gendered Verbal Communication p. 113
Verbal Communication Expresses Cultural Views of Gender p. 114
Male Generic Language Excludes Women p. 114
Language Defines Men and Women Differently p. 115
Language Shapes Awareness p. 118
Language Organizes Perceptions of Gender p. 119
Language Evaluates Gender p. 121
Language Allows Self-Reflection p. 121
Gendered Interaction: Masculine and Feminine Styles of Verbal Communication p. 123
Gendered Speech Communities p. 123
The Lessons of Children's Play p. 124
Boys' games p. 124
Girls' games p. 125
Gendered Communication Practices p. 126
Feminine speech p. 126
Masculine speech p. 128
Gender-Based Misinterpretations in Communication p. 130
Showing support p. 130
"Troubles talk" p. 131
The point of the story p. 132
Relationship talk p. 133
Public speaking p. 133
Summary p. 134
Key Terms p. 134
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 134
Reflection and Discussion p. 135
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 135
Gendered Nonverbal Communication p. 136
Functions of Nonverbal Communication p. 136
To Supplement Verbal Communication p. 137
To Regulate Interaction p. 137
To Establish the Relationship Level of Meaning p. 137
Responsiveness p. 137
Liking p. 138
Power or control p. 139
Forms of Nonverbal Communication p. 139
Artifacts p. 140
Proximity and Personal Space p. 142
Haptics (Touch) p. 144
Kinesics (Facial and Body Motion) p. 145
Paralanguage p. 146
Physical Appearance p. 147
Interpreting Nonverbal Behavior p. 152
Cultural Values Associated with Gendered Nonverbal Communication p. 153
Respecting Gendered Styles of Nonverbal Communication p. 154
Summary p. 155
Key Terms p. 155
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 156
Reflection and Discussion p. 156
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 156
Gendered Communication in Practice
Becoming Gendered: The Early Years p. 157
Entering a Gendered Society p. 158
Self-as-Object p. 158
Monitoring p. 158
Gendering Communication in the Family p. 159
Unconscious Processes: Identification and Internalization p. 159
Ego Boundaries p. 162
Parental Communication about Gender p. 164
Parental Modeling p. 168
The Personal Side of the Gender Drama p. 171
Growing Up Masculine p. 171
Growing Up Feminine p. 174
Growing Up Outside Conventional Gender Roles p. 180
Summary p. 181
Key Terms p. 182
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 182
Reflection and Discussion p. 182
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 182
Gendered Close Relationships p. 184
The Meaning of Personal Relationships p. 185
Models of Personal Relationships p. 185
The male deficit model p. 185
The alternate paths model p. 186
Gendered Styles of Friendship p. 188
Women's Friendships: Closeness in Dialogue p. 188
Men's Friendships: Closeness in the Doing p. 190
Friendships between Women and Men p. 192
Gendered Romantic Relationships p. 193
Developing Romantic Intimacy p. 193
Gendered Patterns in Committed Relationships p. 195
Gendered modes of expressing affection p. 195
Gendered preferences for autonomy and connection p. 197
Gendered responsibility for relational health p. 198
Gendered power dynamics p. 198
Summary p. 205
Key Terms p. 205
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 205
Reflection and Discussion p. 206
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 206
Gendered Education: Communication in Schools p. 207
Gendered Expectations and Pressures Facing Students p. 209
Academics p. 209
Males p. 209
Females p. 211
Gender-Stereotyped Curricula p. 213
Athletics p. 215
Gender Socialization in Peer Cultures p. 216
Pressures to conform to masculinity p. 217
Pressures to conform to femininity p. 217
Single-Sex Educational Programs p. 219
Gendered Expectations and Pressures Facing Faculty p. 221
Gendered Hierarchies p. 221
Gender Bias in Evaluations p. 222
Gendered Policies and Expectations p. 224
Earning tenure p. 225
Service expectations p. 227
Summary p. 227
Key Terms p. 228
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 228
Reflection and Discussion p. 228
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 228
Gendered Organizational Communication p. 230
Gendered Stereotypes in the Workplace p. 231
Stereotypes of Women p. 231
Sex object p. 231
Mother p. 232
Child p. 232
Iron maiden p. 233
Stereotypes of Men p. 234
Sturdy oak p. 235
Fighter p. 235
Breadwinner p. 236
Masculine Norms in Professional Life p. 236
Think Manager-Think Male p. 236
Communication Styles Don't Change p. 237
Men and Women Can't Work Together p. 238
Gendered Patterns in Organizations p. 239
Formal Practices p. 239
Leave policies p. 239
Work schedules p. 240
Informal Practices p. 240
Unwelcoming environments for women p. 241
The informal network p. 241
Mentoring relationships p. 243
Glass ceilings and walls p. 243
Efforts to Redress Gendered Inequity in Institutions p. 245
Equal Opportunity Laws p. 245
Affirmative Action Policies p. 246
Quotas and Goals p. 249
Quotas p. 249
Goals p. 250
Diversity Training p. 251
Summary p. 252
Key Terms p. 252
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 252
Reflection and Discussion p. 252
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 253
Gendered Media p. 254
Media Saturation of Cultural Life p. 256
Gendered Themes in Media p. 257
Underrepresentation of Women and Minorities p. 257
Portrayals of Men and Women p. 258
Portrayals of men p. 258
Portrayals of women p. 259
Images of Relationships between Men and Women p. 263
Women's dependence/Men's independence p. 263
Women's incompetence/Men's authority p. 264
Women as primary caregivers/Men as breadwinners p. 265
Women as victims and sex objects/Men as aggressors p. 265
Gendered Messages in Advertising p. 269
Bias in News Coverage p. 271
Implications of Media Representations of Gender p. 273
Fostering Unrealistic and Limited Gender Ideals p. 274
Pathologizing the Human Body p. 275
Normalizing Violence toward Women p. 278
Is Censorship the Answer? p. 279
Summary p. 279
Key Terms p. 280
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 280
Reflection and Discussion p. 280
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 281
Gendered Power and Violence p. 282
The Social Construction of Gendered Violence p. 283
The Many Faces of Gendered Violence p. 283
Gender Intimidation p. 283
Sexual Assault p. 284
Intimate Partner Violence p. 287
Sexual Harassment p. 293
Quid pro quo p. 293
Hostile environment p. 293
Whose perspective counts? p. 295
Genital Surgery p. 296
Male circumcision p. 296
Sunna p. 296
Excision or clitoridectomy p. 296
Infibulation p. 296
Gender-Based Murder p. 298
The Social Foundations of Gendered Violence p. 299
The Normalization of Violence in Media p. 299
The Normalization of Violence by Institutions p. 300
Family p. 300
Law enforcement p. 301
Counseling p. 302
Language p. 302
Resisting Gendered Violence: Where Do We Go from Here? p. 303
Personal Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence p. 303
Social Efforts to Reduce Gendered Violence p. 305
Summary p. 307
Key Terms p. 307
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 308
Reflection and Discussion p. 308
Research, Analysis, and Action p. 308
Epilogue: Looking Backward, Looking Forward p. 309
Creating the Future p. 310
Defining Masculinity and Femininity p. 311
Responding to Differences p. 312
Taking a Voice p. 313
Building on Ideas and Information in This Chapter p. 314
Reflection and Discussion p. 315
Glossary p. 317
References p. 323
Index p. 367