CONTENTS
Preface xv
P A R T 1
Introduction to Software Engineering 1
C h a p t e r 1
The Scope of Software Engineering 3
1.1 Historical Aspects 4
1.2 Economic Aspects 7
1.3 Maintenance Aspects 8
1.4 Specification and Design Aspects 13
1.5 Team Programming Aspects 15
1.6 The Object-Oriented Paradigm 17
1.7 Terminology 21
Chapter Review 23
For Further Reading 24
Problems 25
References 26
C h a p t e r 2
The Software Process 30
2.1 Client, Developer, and User 32
2.2 Requirements Phase 33
2.2.1 Requirements Phase Testing 34
2.2.2 Requirements Phase
Documentation 35
2.3 Specification Phase 35
2.3.1 Specification Phase Testing 37
2.3.2 Specification Phase Documentation 38
2.4 Design Phase 38
2.4.1 Design Phase Testing 39
2.4.2 Design Phase Documentation 40
2.5 Implementation Phase 40
2.5.1 Implementation Phase Testing 40
2.5.2 Implementation Phase Documentation 40
2.6 Integration Phase 41
2.6.1 Integration Phase Testing 41
2.6.2 Integration Phase Documentation 42
2.7 Maintenance Phase 42
2.7.1 Maintenance Phase Testing 43
2.7.2 Maintenance Phase Documentation 43
2.8 Retirement 43
2.9 Problems with Software Production: Essence and Accidents 44
2.9.1 Complexity 45
2.9.2 Conformity 47
2.9.3 Changeability 48
2.9.4 Invisibility 49
2.9.5 No Silver Bullet? 50
2.10 Improving the Software Process 51
2.11 Capability Maturity Models 51
2.12 Other Software Process Improvement Initiatives 54
2.13 Costs and Benefits of Software Process Improvement 55
Chapter Review 57
For Further Reading 58
Problems 59
References 60
C h a p t e r 3
Software Life-Cycle Models 64
3.1 Build-and-Fix Model 64
3.2 Waterfall Model 65
3.2.1 Analysis of the Waterfall Model 68
3.3 Rapid Prototyping Model 70
3.3.1 Integrating the Waterfall and Rapid Prototyping Models 71
3.4 Incremental Model 72
3.4.1 Analysis of the Incremental Model 73
3.5 Extreme Programming 75
3.6 Synchronize-and-Stabilize Model 77
3.7 Spiral Model 78
3.7.1 Analysis of the Spiral Model 82
3.8 Object-Oriented
Life-Cycle Models 82
3.9 Comparison of Life-Cycle Models 84
Chapter Review 86
For Further Reading 86
Problems 87
References 87
C h a p t e r 4
Teams 90
4.1 Team Organization 90
4.2 Democratic Team Approach 92
4.2.1 Analysis of the Democratic Team Approach 93
4.3 Classical Chief Programmer Team Approach 93
4.3.1 The New York Times Project 95
4.3.2 Impracticality of the Classical Chief
Programmer Team Approach 96
4.4 Beyond Chief Programmer and Democratic Teams 97
4.5 Synchronize-and-Stabilize Teams 101
4.6 Extreme Programming Teams 102
Chapter Review 103
For Further Reading 104
Problems 104
References 105
C h a p t e r 5
The Tools of the Trade 106
5.1 Stepwise Refinement 106
5.1.1 Stepwise Refinement Example 107
5.2 Cost-Benefit Analysis 113
5.3 Software Metrics 114
5.4 CASE 115
5.5 Taxonomy of CASE 116
5.6 Scope of CASE 118
5.7 Software Versions 122
5.7.1 Revisions 122
5.7.2 Variations 123
5.8 Configuration Control 124
5.8.1 Configuration Control during Product Maintenance 126
5.8.2 Baselines 127
5.8.3 Configuration Control during Product Development 127
5.9 Build Tools 128
5.10 Productivity Gains with CASE Technology 129
Chapter Review 131
For Further Reading 131
Problems 132
References 133
C h a p t e r 6
Testing 136
6.1 Quality Issues 137
6.1.1 Software Quality Assurance 137
6.1.2 Managerial Independence 138
6.2 Nonexecution-Based Testing 139
6.2.1 Walkthroughs 139
6.2.2 Managing Walkthroughs 140
6.2.3 Inspections 141
6.2.4 Comparison of Inspections and Walkthroughs 143
6.2.5 Strengths and Weaknesses of Reviews 144
6.2.6 Metrics for Inspections 144
6.3 Execution-Based Testing 145
6.4 What Should Be Tested? 145
6.4.1 Utility 146
6.4.2 Reliability 147
6.4.3 Robustness 147
6.4.4 Performance 148
6.4.5 Correctness 149
6.5 Testing versus Correctness Proofs 151
6.5.1 Example of a Correctness Proof 151
6.5.2 Correctness Proof Case Study 154
6.5.3 Correctness Proof and Software Engineering 155
6.6 Who Should Perform Execution-Based Testing? 158
6.7 When Testing Stops 160
Chapter Review 160
For Further Reading 161
Problems 162
References 164
C h a p t e r 7
From Modules to Objects 167
7.1 What Is a Module? 167
7.2 Cohesion 171
7.2.1 Coincidental Cohesion 171
7.2.2 Logical Cohesion 172
7.2.3 Temporal Cohesion 173
7.2.4 Procedural Cohesion 174
7.2.5 Communicational Cohesion 174
7.2.6 Functional Cohesion 175
7.2.7 Informational Cohesion 175
7.2.8 Cohesion Example 176
7.3 Coupling 177
7.3.1 Content Coupling 178
7.3.2 Common Coupling 178
7.3.3 Control Coupling 180
7.3.4 Stamp Coupling 180
7.3.5 Data Coupling 182
7.3.6 Coupling Example 182
7.3.7 The Importance of Coupling 182
7.4 Data Encapsulation 184
7.4.1 Data Encapsulation and Product Development 186
7.4.2 Data Encapsulation and Product Maintenance 188
7.5 Abstract Data Types 194
7.6 Information Hiding 195
7.7 Objects 198
7.8 Inheritance, Polymorphism, and Dynamic Binding 201
7.9 Cohesion and Coupling of Objects 203
7.10 The Object-Oriented Paradigm 204
Chapter Review 207
For Further Reading 207
Problems 208
References 209
C h a p t e r 8
Reusability, Portability, and Interoperability 212
8.1 Reuse Concepts 212
8.2 Impediments to Reuse 214
8.3 Reuse Case Studies 216
8.3.1 Raytheon Missile Systems Division 216
8.3.2 Toshiba Software Factory 217
8.3.3 NASA Software 218
8.3.4 GTE Data Services 219
8.3.5 Hewlett-Packard 220
8.3.6 European Space Agency 221
8.4 Objects and Reuse 222
8.5 Reuse during the Design and Implementation Phases 222
8.5.1 Design Reuse 222
8.5.2 Application Frameworks 224
8.5.3 Design Patterns 225
8.5.4 Software Architecture 229
8.6 Reuse and Maintenance 230
8.7 Portability 231
8.7.1 Hardware Incompatibilities 232
8.7.2 Operating Systems Incompatibilities 233
8.7.3 Numerical Software Incompatibilities 233
8.7.4 Compiler Incompatibilities 235
8.8 Why Portability? 239
8.9 Techniques for Achieving Portability 240
8.9.1 Portable System Software 240
8.9.2 Portable Application Software 241
8.9.3 Portable Data 242
8.10 Interoperability 243
8.10.1 COM 243
8.10.2 CORBA 244
8.10.3 Comparing COM and CORBA 245
8.11 Future Trends in Interoperability 245
Chapter Review 246
For Further Reading 247
Problems 248
References 250
C h a p t e r 9
Planning and Estimating 257
9.1 Planning and the Software Process 257
9.2 Estimating Duration and Cost 259
9.2.1 Metrics for the Size of a Product 260
9.2.2 Techniques of Cost Estimation 264
9.2.3 Intermediate COCOMO 267
9.2.4 COCOMO II 270
9.2.5 Tracking Duration and Cost Estimates 272
9.3 Components of a Software Project Management Plan 272
9.4 Software Project Management Plan Framework 274
9.5 IEEE Software Project Management Plan 274
9.6 Planning Testing 278
9.7 Planning Object-Oriented Projects 279
9.8 Training Requirements 280
9.9 Documentation Standards 281
9.10 CASE Tools for Planning and Estimating 282
9.11 Testing the Software Project Management Plan 282
Chapter Review 283
For Further Reading 283
Problems 284
References 285
P A R T 2
The Phases of the Software Life Cycle 289
C h a p t e r 10
Requirements Phase 290
10.1 Requirements Elicitation 291
10.1.1 Interviews 291
10.1.2 Scenarios 292
10.1.3 Other Requirements Elicitation Techniques 293
10.2 Requirements Analysis 294
10.3 Rapid Prototyping 294
10.4 Human Factors 296
10.5 Rapid Prototyping as a Specification Technique 298
10.6 Reusing the Rapid Prototype 300
10.7 Management Implications of the Rapid Prototyping Model 302
10.8 Experiences with Rapid Prototyping 304
10.9 Techniques for Requirements Elicitation and Analysis 305
10.10 Testing during the Requirements Phase 305
10.11 CASE Tools for the Requirements Phase 306
10.12 Metrics for the Requirements Phase 307
10.13 Object-Oriented Requirements? 308
10.14 Air Gourmet Case Study: Requirements Phase 308
10.15 Air Gourmet Case Study: Rapid Prototype 311
10.16 Challenges of the Requirements Phase 313
Chapter Review 315
For Further Reading 315
Problems 316
References 317
C h a p t e r 11
Specification Phase 319
11.1 The Specification Document 319
11.2 Informal Specifications 321
11.2.1 Case Study: Text Processing 322
11.3 Structured Systems Analysis 323
11.3.1 Sally's Software Shop 323
11.4 Other Semiformal Techniques 331
11.5 Entity-Relationship Modeling 332
11.6 Finite State Machines 335
11.6.1 Elevator Problem: Finite State Machines 336
11.7 Petri Nets 341
11.7.1 Elevator Problem: Petri Nets 343
11.8 Z 346
11.8.1 Elevator Problem: Z 347
11.8.2 Analysis of Z 349
11.9 Other Formal Techniques 351
11.10 Comparison of Specification Techniques 352
11.11 Testing during the Specification Phase 353
11.12 CASE Tools for the Specification Phase 354
11.13 Metrics for the Specification Phase 355
11.14 Air Gourmet Case Study: Structured Systems Analysis 355
11.15 Air Gourmet Case Study: Software Project Management Plan 357
11.16 Challenges of the Specification Phase 358
Chapter Review 358
For Further Reading 359
Problems 360
References 362
C h a p t e r 12
Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 366
12.1 Object-Oriented Analysis 366
12.2 Elevator Problem: Object-Oriented Analysis 369
12.3 Use-Case Modeling 369
12.4 Class Modeling 371
12.4.1 Noun Extraction 372
12.4.2 CRC Cards 374
12.5 Dynamic Modeling 375
12.6 Testing during the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 378
12.7 CASE Tools for the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 383
12.8 Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Oriented Analysis 383
12.9 Challenges of the Object-Oriented Analysis Phase 390
Chapter Review 391
For Further Reading 391
Problems 392
References 393
C h a p t e r 13
Design Phase 395
13.1 Design and Abstraction 395
13.2 Action-Oriented Design 396
13.3 Data Flow Analysis 397
13.3.1 Data Flow Analysis Example 398
13.3.2 Extensions 402
13.4 Transaction Analysis 403
13.5 Data-Oriented Design 406
13.6 Object-Oriented Design 406
13.7 Elevator Problem: Object-Oriented Design 407
13.8 Formal Techniques for Detailed Design 415
13.9 Real-Time Design Techniques 416
13.10 Testing during the Design Phase 418
13.11 CASE Tools for the Design Phase 418
13.12 Metrics for the Design Phase 419
13.13 Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Oriented Design 420
13.14 Challenges of the Design Phase 429
Chapter Review 429
For Further Reading 430
Problems 431
References 431
C h a p t e r 14
Implementation Phase 434
14.1 Choice of Programming Language 434
14.2 Fourth-Generation Languages 437
14.3 Good Programming Practice 440
14.4 Coding Standards 445
14.5 Module Reuse 446
14.6 Module Test Case Selection 447
14.6.1 Testing to Specifications versus Testing to Code 447
14.6.2 Feasibility of Testing to Specifications 447
14.6.3 Feasibility of Testing to Code 448
14.7 Black-Box Module-Testing Techniques 451
14.7.1 Equivalence Testing and Boundary Value Analysis 451
14.7.2 Functional Testing 452
14.8 Glass-Box Module-Testing Techniques 454
14.8.1 Structural Testing: Statement, Branch, and Path Coverage 454
14.8.2 Complexity Metrics 456
14.9 Code Walkthroughs and Inspections 458
14.10 Comparison of Module-Testing Techniques 458
14.11 Cleanroom 459
14.12 Potential Problems When Testing Objects 460
14.13 Management Aspects of Module Testing 463
14.14 When to Rewrite Rather than Debug a Module 463
14.15 CASE Tools for the Implementation Phase 465
14.16 Air Gourmet Case Study: Black-Box Test Cases 465
14.17 Challenges of the Implementation Phase 467
Chapter Review 467
For Further Reading 468
Problems 469
References 470
C h a p t e r 15
Implementation and Integration Phase 474
15.1 Introduction to Implementation and Integration 474
15.1.1 Top-down Implementation and Integration 475
15.1.2 Bottom-up Implementation and Integration 477
15.1.3 Sandwich Implementation and Integration 478
15.1.4 Implementation and Integration of Object-Oriented Products 480
15.1.5 Management Issues during the Implementation and Integration Phase 480
15.2 Testing during the Implementation and Integration Phase 481
15.3 Integration Testing of Graphical User Interfaces 481
15.4 Product Testing 482
15.5 Acceptance Testing 483
15.6 CASE Tools for the Implementation and Integration Phase 484
15.6 CASE Tools for the Complete Software Process 484
15.8 Integrated Environments 485
15.9 Environments for Business Applications 486
15.10 Public Tool Infrastructures 487
15.11 Potential Problems with Environments 487
15.12 Metrics for the Implementation and Integration Phase 488
15.13 Air Gourmet Case Study: Implementation and Integration Phase 488
15.14 Challenges of the Implementation and Integration Phase 489
Chapter Review 489
For Further Reading 490
Problems 490
References 492
C h a p t e r 16
Maintenance Phase 493
16.1 Why Maintenance Is Necessary 493
16.2 What Is Required of Maintenance Programmers 494
16.3 Maintenance Case Study 497
16.4 Management of Maintenance 498
16.4.1 Fault Reports 498
16.4.2 Authorizing Changes to the Product 499
16.4.3 Ensuring Maintainability 500
16.4.4 Problem of Repeated Maintenance 500
16.5 Maintenance of Object-Oriented Software 501
16.6 Maintenance Skills versus Development Skills 504
16.7 Reverse Engineering 505
16.8 Testing during the Maintenance Phase 506
16.9 CASE Tools for the Maintenance Phase 507
16.10 Metrics for the Maintenance Phase 507
16.11 Air Gourmet Case Study: Maintenance Phase 508
16.12 Challenges of the Maintenance Phase 508
Chapter Review 509
For Further Reading 509
Problems 510
References 511
A p p e n d i x A
Broadlands Area Children's Hospital 513
A p p e n d i x B
Software Engineering Resources 518
A p p e n d i x C
Air Gourmet Case Study: C Rapid Prototype 520
A p p e n d i x D
Air Gourmet Case Study: Java Rapid Prototype 521
A p p e n d i x E
Air Gourmet Case Study: Structured Systems Analysis 522
A p p e n d i x F
Air Gourmet Case Study: Software Project Management Plan 529
A p p e n d i x G
Air Gourmet Case Study: Object-Oriented Analysis 534
A p p e n d i x H
Air Gourmet Case Study: Design for C++ Implementation 535
A p p e n d i x I
Air Gourmet Case Study: Design for Java Implementation 560
A p p e n d i x J
Air Gourmet Case Study: Black-Box Test Cases 582
A p p e n d i x K
Air Gourmet Case Study: C++ Source Code 588
A p p e n d i x L
Air Gourmet Case Study: Java Source Code 589
Bibliography 590
Author Index 617
Subject Index 623




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