Table Of Contents:
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xix
The Author xxi

Chapter 1 A Prospective 1(14)

Introduction 1(1)

History 2(7)

Advantages and Disadvantages of Composting 9(1)

The Technology of Composting 10(1)

Potentially Associated Risks with Composting or Compost Use 10(3)

Conclusion 13(1)

References 14(1)

Chapter 2 Basic Concepts of Composting 15(10)

Introduction 15(1)

Temperature 15(2)

Carbon and Nitrogen (C:N) 17(2)

Carbon 17(1)

Nitrogen 18(1)

Moisture 19(1)

Oxygen and Aeration 20(1)

Microorganisms in Composting 21(1)

Stability, Maturity, and Phytotoxicity 21(2)

Conclusion 23(1)

References 24(1)

Chapter 3 The Composting Process 25(16)

Introduction 25(3)

Feedstocks 25(1)

Bulking Agent or Amendments 26(2)

Final Product Distribution and Marketing 28(1)

The Composting Process 28(10)

Preprocessing 28(1)

Feedstock Delivery and Handling 28(2)

Feedstock Preparation 30(2)

Composting 32(1)

Composting Phase or Active Composting 32(4)

Curing Phase 36(2)

Postprocessing 38(1)

Refining 38(1)

Product Preparation 38(1)

Conclusion 38(1)

References 39(2)

Chapter 4 Design and Material, Energy, and Water Balances 41(20)

Introduction 41(1)

Approaches to Design 42(8)

Technical Memoranda 43(4)

Workshops 47(1)

Design Basis Report 48(2)

Material, Energy, and Water Balances 50(10)

Material Balance 50(5)

Energy Balance 55(2)

Water Balance 57(3)

Conclusion 60(1)

References 60(1)

Chapter 5 Facilities Planning 61(18)

Introduction 61(1)

Facility Ownership and Management 62(1)

Community Involvement 62(3)

Permit and Ancillary Requirements 65(1)

Regulations 66(6)

Site Selection 72(2)

Neighbors 73(1)

Availability of Feedstocks and Product Marketing Including Transportation Routes 73(1)

Availability of Utilities Such as Sewerage, Water, and Power 74(1)

Site Existing Conditions 74(1)

Site Layout 74(2)

Traffic 74(1)

Water Management and Resources 75(1)

Geotechnical 75(1)

Utilities 76(1)

System and Technology Selection 76(1)

Conclusion 77(1)

References 77(2)

Chapter 6 Composting Technologies and Systems 79(26)

Introduction 79(2)

Generic Classification of Composting Technologies 81(21)

Static Systems 83(1)

Passively Aerated Windrows 83(1)

Forced Aeration 83(9)

Bin/Container/Bag/Tunnel 92(1)

Silos and Vertical Reactors 93(1)

Turned or Agitated Systems 94(1)

Windrow 94(3)

Agitated Bed 97(4)

Drum 101(1)

Criteria for System Selection 102(1)

Conclusion 102(1)

References 103(2)

Chapter 7 Facility Design 105(22)

Introduction 105(1)

Process Flow Determination 106(7)

Site Design and Improvements 113(2)

Traffic Flow and Location of Roads 114(1)

Site Improvements 114(1)

Structures 114(1)

Equipment 115(3)

Front-End Loaders (FELs) 115(1)

Windrow Turning Equipment 116(1)

Proprietary Equipment 116(2)

Basic Design Information 118(6)

Aeration Systems 118(2)

Aeration Requirements 120(4)

Conclusion 124(2)

References 126(1)

Chapter 8 Economics 127(14)

Introduction 127(1)

Economics 127(8)

Avoided Costs 128(1)

Steps Needed to Arrive at the Cost of a Facility 129(2)

Preliminary Costs 131(1)

Compost Facility Capital Costs 131(1)

Operational and Maintenance Costs (O&M) 132(1)

Labor 132(1)

Other O&M Expenses 133(2)

Cost Comparison between Technologies and Systems 135(1)

Economics of Product Marketing and Sales 135(4)

Conclusion 139(1)

References 139(2)

Chapter 9 Odor Management Basic Concepts 141(34)

Introduction 141(1)

Assessing and Evaluating Odors 142(22)

Basic Concepts 142(2)

Odorous Compounds 144(5)

Effect of Composting on VOC Destruction 149(5)

Relation of Odors to VOC Emissions 154(1)

Odor Characterization 154(1)

Odor Quantity 154(1)

Odor Intensity 155(1)

Odor Persistence 156(1)

Odor Character 157(1)

Hedonic Tone 157(1)

Odor Measurements 157(1)

Odor Modeling 158(6)

Production of Odors as Related to Technology 164(4)

Odors and Receptors 168(3)

Factors Affecting the Odor Influence Sensitive Receptors 168(1)

Odor as a Health Issue 168(3)

Conclusion 171(1)

References 172(3)

Chapter 10 Operational Control of Odors 175(22)

Introduction 175(4)

Principles of Operational Control 179(3)

Attention to Climatic and Microclimatic Conditions 179(1)

Management of the Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio (C:N) 180(1)

Aeration and Oxygen 181(1)

Moisture 181(1)

Temperature 182(1)

Maintaining Proper Physical Structure of the Matrix 182(1)

Managerial Aspects of Odor Management 182(4)

Covers 186(6)

Chemical Odor Neutralizers and Additives 192(1)

Conclusion 193(1)

References 194(3)

Chapter 11 Odor Control Systems 197(22)

Introduction 197(1)

Biofiltration 197(3)

Principles of Biofiltration 197(2)

Water 199(1)

pH and Nutrients 199(1)

Temperature 199(1)

Toxic Gases 199(1)

Advantages to Biofiltration 199(1)

Disadvantages to Biofiltration 200(1)

Biofilters 200(2)

Design Criteria and Operational Considerations of a Biofilter 202(5)

Media Selection 202(3)

Moisture 205(1)

pH 206(1)

Porosity 206(1)

Pressure Drop 206(1)

Loading Rate 207(1)

Temperature 207(1)

Ammonia 207(1)

Nutrients 207(1)

Retention Time, Residence, or Detention Time 207(1)

Biofilter Design 207(4)

Managing Biofilters 211(2)

Other Biological Control Systems 213(1)

Covers 213(1)

Conclusion 214(3)

References 217(2)

Chapter 12 Pathogens 219(22)

Introduction 219(2)

Pathogen Concentrations as Related to Feedstocks 221(6)

Pathogens in Sewage Sludge, Septage, and Biosolids 222(1)

Pathogens in Manures 222(2)

Pathogens in Other Feedstocks 224(3)

Types of Pathogens 227(3)

Salmonella spp 227(1)

Escherichia coli O157:H7 228(1)

Other Pathogens 229(1)

Public and Worker Concerns and Issues 230(6)

Control of Pathogens, Their Emission, and Dispersion during Composting 230(2)

Effect of Composting on Pathogen Destruction 232(4)

Bacterial Regrowth and Recontamination 236(1)

Worker Exposure and Prevention 236(1)

Conclusion 236(1)

References 237(4)

Chapter 13 Bioaerosols 241(26)

Introduction 241(2)

Bioaerosols Associated with Composting and Their Potential Diseases 243(6)

Fungi 243(1)

Aspergillus fumigatus 244(3)

Endotoxin 247(1)

Glucans 248(1)

Actinomycetes 248(1)

Mycotoxins 248(1)

Organic Dust 249(1)

Predominant Bioaerosols Related to Composting and Their Presence in the Environment 249(2)

Aspergillus fumigatus 249(1)

Endotoxins 250(1)

Organic Dust 251(1)

Bioaerosols and Composting 251(2)

Description of Bioaerosols Associated with Composting Operations 251(1)

Aspergillus fumigatus 251(1)

Endotoxins and Organic Dust 252(1)

Measuring Bioaerosols at Composting Facilities 252(1)

Bioaerosols and Composting Operations 252(1)

Bioaerosols and Human Health as Related to Composting 253(6)

Public Health 253(3)

Worker Health 256(3)

Managing Bioaerosols 259(1)

Conclusion 259(1)

References 260(7)

Chapter 14 Site Management 267(12)

Introduction 267(1)

Health and Safety 267(2)

Health 267(1)

Safety 267(2)

Site Management 269(6)

Dust Control 269(2)

Noise Control 271(1)

Vector Control 272(1)

Fires 272(2)

Managing Site Water 274(1)

Sampling, Analyzing, and Testing 275(2)

Conclusion 277(1)

References 278(1)

Chapter 15 Public Relations, Communication, and Regulations 279(14)

Introduction 279(1)

Public Relations and Communication 279(1)

Regulations 280(1)

Public Relations, Participation, and Communication 280(2)

Regulations 282(6)

Concepts and Approaches to Regulations 282(4)

Heavy Metal Regulations 286(1)

Pathogen and Vector Attraction Rules 287(1)

Odor Regulations 288(2)

Conclusion 290(1)

References 291(2)

Chapter 16 Product Utilization and Marketing 293(22)

Introduction 293(2)

Properties of Compost 295(7)

Chemical Properties 296(1)

Biological Properties 297(3)

Physical Properties 300(2)

Utilization of Compost 302(8)

General Uses 302(1)

Horticulture 302(1)

Ornamentals 303(1)

Sod Production, Turf Grass, and Lawn Establishment 303(1)

Agriculture 304(3)

Forestry and Land Reclamation 307(2)

Public Works 309(1)

Compost Marketing 310(2)

Conclusion 312(1)

References 312(3)
Index 315