简介
ASTRONOMERS鈥?OBSERVING GUIDES provide up-to-date information for amateur astronomers who want to know all about what it is they are observing. This is the basis of the first part of the book. The second part details observing techniques for practical astronomers, working with a range of different instruments. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ We live in a violent universe. The media constantly remind us of the possibility of an object suddenly appearing and hitting Earth. A hit by an asteroid is believed to have spelled the end of the dinosaurs. Such a collision by an object from space could cause another extinction event, if the object were large enough. And such objects are definitely out there. Often called 鈥渢he vermin of the sky,鈥?asteroids roam our Solar System often unseen. Many have been tracked, and their orbits calculated. But there are still many to be discovered and assessed. Many amateur astronomers are helping in this effort, sometimes even working with professional astronomers, to contribute to our knowledge and avert danger. Some people just enjoying locating these or the dwarf planets, such as Pluto, and then following their paths. Whatever your interest, Asteroids and Dwarf Planets and How to Observe Them will help you get started. It will tell you what you are looking at and why you should look. It will also help you learn how to look. This is definitely an area where amateurs can make a difference. Roger Dymock, in clear, engaging language can help you get started right now!
目录
Acknowledgements 5
About the Author 7
Contents 9
Part I: Asteroids and Dwarf Planets 15
Chapter 1: Introduction 16
Chapter 2: Small (and Not So Small) Solar System Bodies 21
Planets and Dwarf Planets 21
Resolution 5 22
Resolution 6 22
Asteroids 23
Designations Old and New 25
Numbering and Naming 26
Asteroid Orbits 26
Lost? Perhaps Not 29
Chapter 3: Groups and Families 30
Asteroid Groups 30
Vulcanoids 31
Near-Earth Asteroids/Objects (NEAs/Os) 31
The Main Belt 33
Trojans 34
Locations and Numbers 34
Martian Trojans 34
Jupiter (or Jovian) Trojans 35
Neptune Trojans 35
Centaurs 36
The Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt 36
Plutinos and Plutoids 37
Classical Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt Objects 38
Scattered Disk Objects 39
Detached Objects 39
And Finally\u2026 39
Moons 40
Classical Orbits 40
Quasi-Satellites and Horseshoe Orbits 40
Dwarf Planets 41
Exosolar Asteroids 41
Summary 41
Chapter 4: The Nature of Asteroids and Dwarf Planets 43
Rubble Piles or Solid Bodies? 43
Binaries and Beyond 45
Asteroid or Comet? 47
Spectral Classification 47
Opposition Effect 50
What of EKBOs? 51
Dwarf Planets and Their Moons 52
(1) Ceres 53
(134340) Pluto 54
(136108) Haumea 55
(136199) Eris 56
(136472) Makemake 57
Chapter 5: Origins and Evolution 58
The Birth of the Solar System 58
How the Asteroids Formed 59
Where Near-Earth Asteroids Come from 59
Why Are There Asteroids and No Planets Between Mars and Jupiter? 61
Why Are There Gaps in the Main Belt? 62
The Edges of the Main Belt 63
How Asteroid Families Came to Be 63
Planetary Satellites 64
The Origin of Trojan Asteroids 64
Unpredictable Centaurs 64
The Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt: Knowns and Unknowns 65
Chapter 6: Impact? 68
Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) 68
Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) 68
Craters and Cratering 69
What If? 70
Discovery 72
Uncertainty Becoming Certainty (Hit or Miss) 73
Who Watches the Watchers? 76
Deflect or Destroy? 76
Deflection 77
Destruction 78
Part II: Observing Guide 79
Chapter 7: Observatories 80
Temporary or Portable Set-Up 80
Backyard Observatories 81
Observatory Domes 81
Roll-Off Roof Observatories 81
Roll-Away Shed 83
A Remote-Controlled Observatory 83
Amateur Astronomical Groups 84
Robotic Telescopes 86
Professional Observatories 87
Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) 87
Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) 88
Space Missions 88
Chapter 8: Visual Observing 91
Getting Started 92
Limiting Magnitude 94
Finding the Target 95
Targets for Tonight 95
What to Record 98
Logbook 98
Drawing the Star Field 98
Estimating Magnitude (Visual Photometry) 100
The Fractional Method 100
The Argelander Step Method 101
Pogson\u2019s Step Method 101
Estimating Position (Visual Astrometry) 101
Observing Projects 102
How Faint Can You Go? 102
Following in the Footsteps 102
Conclusion 103
Chapter 9: Webcam and DSLR Imaging 104
Webcam Imaging 104
Asteroid (6) Hebe by Chris Hooker, UK 105
Locating the Asteroid 105
Image Capture 106
Image Processing Part I 107
Image Processing Part II 107
(1) Ceres \u2013 John Sussenbach 107
Image Capture 107
Image Processing 107
DSLR Imaging 109
(44) Nysa \u2013 Michael Clarke 110
Asteroids (11) Parthenope and (16) Psyche: Maurice Gavin 110
Conclusion 112
Chapter 10: Astrometry Tools and Techniques 113
The What, Why, and How 113
What Is Astrometry? 113
Why Is It Needed? 114
How Is It Done? 114
Tools of the Trade 114
CCD Basics 116
Pixel Size 118
Obtaining an Observatory Code 118
Why Do You Need One? 118
Choosing Asteroids to Image 118
Imaging the Asteroids 119
Processing the Images 121
Verification of Results 122
Submission of Results to the Minor Planet Center 123
Tracking and Stacking 124
Conclusion 126
Chapter 11: Astrometry Projects 127
Follow-Up Observations 127
Lowell Observatory 128
Spaceguard 128
Follow-Up Astrometric Program (FUAP) 129
Minor Planet Center 130
Discovery Confirmation 131
Asteroid Discovery 134
Advanced Amateur Astrometry 136
Very Fast Moving Objects (VFMOs) 136
Determination of NEO Distance by Parallax 138
Moving Object and Transient Event Search System (MOTESS) 139
An Outer Solar System High Ecliptic Latitude Survey 141
Conclusion 142
Chapter 12: Lightcurve Photometry Tools and Techniques 143
Asteroid Rotation 143
An Asteroid Lightcurve 146
What Can a Lightcurve Tell Us? 146
What Is Photometry? 147
Differential Photometry 147
Absolute or All-Sky Photometry 148
A New Approach 148
Equipment Needed 149
Differential Photometry 150
Choosing a Target 150
Imaging 151
Image Processing and Analysis Using MPO Canopus 152
A New Approach 156
Slow Rotators 156
Imaging 157
Image Processing and Analysis 159
Conclusion 160
Chapter 13: Lightcurve Photometry Projects 161
The Handbook of the British Astronomical Association 161
Minor Planet Bulletin (MPB) Projects 163
Shape and Spin Axis Modeling 164
Determination of Rotational Period 165
In Support of Planned Radar Targets 165
Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) 167
Mikko Kaasalainen\u2019s Shape Modeling Program 167
Koronis Family Asteroids Rotation Lightcurve Observing Program 168
Jupiter Trojans 169
Karin Family Asteroids 169
Ondrejov Asteroid Photometry Project 169
\u2018Extreme\u2019 Lightcurves 171
Conclusion 173
Chapter 14: Absolute Magnitude 174
Theory 174
Not Quite Absolute 176
Practical 179
What to Observe 179
Analysis 179
An Example: Asteroid (01909) Alekhin 180
Publish! 182
What of the Professionals? 182
Conclusion 183
Chapter 15: Occultations 184
What Is an Occultation? 184
What Can Occultations Tell Us? 184
Occultation Predictions 187
Observing an Occultation 188
Visual Observing 188
Video Recording 190
CCD Imaging 192
Reporting 194
Results 195
Conclusion 196
Chapter 16: On-Line Image Analysis 197
The Past \u2013 Spacewatch Fast Moving Object (FMO) Project 197
The Present \u2013 Skymorph 197
The Future - ? 205
Chapter 17: A Final Word 206
Appendix A 209
Amateur and Professional Organizations 209
Appendix B 210
Resources 210
Books 210
Websites 212
Mailing Lists 220
Appendix C 221
Papers 221
A Method for Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroids from CCD Images 221
Roger Dymock and Richard Miles 221
The Problem 221
Proposed Solution 222
Practical Results 224
Example 1: Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroid (1467) Mashona 224
Example 2: Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroid 2000 BD19 229
Conclusion 231
Acknowledgements 232
References 232
Postscript 233
Notes on Using Astrometrica to Determine V Magnitudes 235
Appendix D 237
Astrometry How-To 237
Most Common Problems 237
Notes Regarding Professional Programs 239
Index 240
About the Author 7
Contents 9
Part I: Asteroids and Dwarf Planets 15
Chapter 1: Introduction 16
Chapter 2: Small (and Not So Small) Solar System Bodies 21
Planets and Dwarf Planets 21
Resolution 5 22
Resolution 6 22
Asteroids 23
Designations Old and New 25
Numbering and Naming 26
Asteroid Orbits 26
Lost? Perhaps Not 29
Chapter 3: Groups and Families 30
Asteroid Groups 30
Vulcanoids 31
Near-Earth Asteroids/Objects (NEAs/Os) 31
The Main Belt 33
Trojans 34
Locations and Numbers 34
Martian Trojans 34
Jupiter (or Jovian) Trojans 35
Neptune Trojans 35
Centaurs 36
The Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt 36
Plutinos and Plutoids 37
Classical Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt Objects 38
Scattered Disk Objects 39
Detached Objects 39
And Finally\u2026 39
Moons 40
Classical Orbits 40
Quasi-Satellites and Horseshoe Orbits 40
Dwarf Planets 41
Exosolar Asteroids 41
Summary 41
Chapter 4: The Nature of Asteroids and Dwarf Planets 43
Rubble Piles or Solid Bodies? 43
Binaries and Beyond 45
Asteroid or Comet? 47
Spectral Classification 47
Opposition Effect 50
What of EKBOs? 51
Dwarf Planets and Their Moons 52
(1) Ceres 53
(134340) Pluto 54
(136108) Haumea 55
(136199) Eris 56
(136472) Makemake 57
Chapter 5: Origins and Evolution 58
The Birth of the Solar System 58
How the Asteroids Formed 59
Where Near-Earth Asteroids Come from 59
Why Are There Asteroids and No Planets Between Mars and Jupiter? 61
Why Are There Gaps in the Main Belt? 62
The Edges of the Main Belt 63
How Asteroid Families Came to Be 63
Planetary Satellites 64
The Origin of Trojan Asteroids 64
Unpredictable Centaurs 64
The Edgeworth\u2013Kuiper Belt: Knowns and Unknowns 65
Chapter 6: Impact? 68
Near-Earth Objects (NEOs) 68
Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) 68
Craters and Cratering 69
What If? 70
Discovery 72
Uncertainty Becoming Certainty (Hit or Miss) 73
Who Watches the Watchers? 76
Deflect or Destroy? 76
Deflection 77
Destruction 78
Part II: Observing Guide 79
Chapter 7: Observatories 80
Temporary or Portable Set-Up 80
Backyard Observatories 81
Observatory Domes 81
Roll-Off Roof Observatories 81
Roll-Away Shed 83
A Remote-Controlled Observatory 83
Amateur Astronomical Groups 84
Robotic Telescopes 86
Professional Observatories 87
Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) 87
Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) 88
Space Missions 88
Chapter 8: Visual Observing 91
Getting Started 92
Limiting Magnitude 94
Finding the Target 95
Targets for Tonight 95
What to Record 98
Logbook 98
Drawing the Star Field 98
Estimating Magnitude (Visual Photometry) 100
The Fractional Method 100
The Argelander Step Method 101
Pogson\u2019s Step Method 101
Estimating Position (Visual Astrometry) 101
Observing Projects 102
How Faint Can You Go? 102
Following in the Footsteps 102
Conclusion 103
Chapter 9: Webcam and DSLR Imaging 104
Webcam Imaging 104
Asteroid (6) Hebe by Chris Hooker, UK 105
Locating the Asteroid 105
Image Capture 106
Image Processing Part I 107
Image Processing Part II 107
(1) Ceres \u2013 John Sussenbach 107
Image Capture 107
Image Processing 107
DSLR Imaging 109
(44) Nysa \u2013 Michael Clarke 110
Asteroids (11) Parthenope and (16) Psyche: Maurice Gavin 110
Conclusion 112
Chapter 10: Astrometry Tools and Techniques 113
The What, Why, and How 113
What Is Astrometry? 113
Why Is It Needed? 114
How Is It Done? 114
Tools of the Trade 114
CCD Basics 116
Pixel Size 118
Obtaining an Observatory Code 118
Why Do You Need One? 118
Choosing Asteroids to Image 118
Imaging the Asteroids 119
Processing the Images 121
Verification of Results 122
Submission of Results to the Minor Planet Center 123
Tracking and Stacking 124
Conclusion 126
Chapter 11: Astrometry Projects 127
Follow-Up Observations 127
Lowell Observatory 128
Spaceguard 128
Follow-Up Astrometric Program (FUAP) 129
Minor Planet Center 130
Discovery Confirmation 131
Asteroid Discovery 134
Advanced Amateur Astrometry 136
Very Fast Moving Objects (VFMOs) 136
Determination of NEO Distance by Parallax 138
Moving Object and Transient Event Search System (MOTESS) 139
An Outer Solar System High Ecliptic Latitude Survey 141
Conclusion 142
Chapter 12: Lightcurve Photometry Tools and Techniques 143
Asteroid Rotation 143
An Asteroid Lightcurve 146
What Can a Lightcurve Tell Us? 146
What Is Photometry? 147
Differential Photometry 147
Absolute or All-Sky Photometry 148
A New Approach 148
Equipment Needed 149
Differential Photometry 150
Choosing a Target 150
Imaging 151
Image Processing and Analysis Using MPO Canopus 152
A New Approach 156
Slow Rotators 156
Imaging 157
Image Processing and Analysis 159
Conclusion 160
Chapter 13: Lightcurve Photometry Projects 161
The Handbook of the British Astronomical Association 161
Minor Planet Bulletin (MPB) Projects 163
Shape and Spin Axis Modeling 164
Determination of Rotational Period 165
In Support of Planned Radar Targets 165
Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link (CALL) 167
Mikko Kaasalainen\u2019s Shape Modeling Program 167
Koronis Family Asteroids Rotation Lightcurve Observing Program 168
Jupiter Trojans 169
Karin Family Asteroids 169
Ondrejov Asteroid Photometry Project 169
\u2018Extreme\u2019 Lightcurves 171
Conclusion 173
Chapter 14: Absolute Magnitude 174
Theory 174
Not Quite Absolute 176
Practical 179
What to Observe 179
Analysis 179
An Example: Asteroid (01909) Alekhin 180
Publish! 182
What of the Professionals? 182
Conclusion 183
Chapter 15: Occultations 184
What Is an Occultation? 184
What Can Occultations Tell Us? 184
Occultation Predictions 187
Observing an Occultation 188
Visual Observing 188
Video Recording 190
CCD Imaging 192
Reporting 194
Results 195
Conclusion 196
Chapter 16: On-Line Image Analysis 197
The Past \u2013 Spacewatch Fast Moving Object (FMO) Project 197
The Present \u2013 Skymorph 197
The Future - ? 205
Chapter 17: A Final Word 206
Appendix A 209
Amateur and Professional Organizations 209
Appendix B 210
Resources 210
Books 210
Websites 212
Mailing Lists 220
Appendix C 221
Papers 221
A Method for Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroids from CCD Images 221
Roger Dymock and Richard Miles 221
The Problem 221
Proposed Solution 222
Practical Results 224
Example 1: Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroid (1467) Mashona 224
Example 2: Determining the V Magnitude of Asteroid 2000 BD19 229
Conclusion 231
Acknowledgements 232
References 232
Postscript 233
Notes on Using Astrometrica to Determine V Magnitudes 235
Appendix D 237
Astrometry How-To 237
Most Common Problems 237
Notes Regarding Professional Programs 239
Index 240
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