Preface p. V
Foreword to the Second Edition p. VII
From macrooptics to microoptics--an overview p. 1
Optics technology p. 1
Classification of optical hardware p. 3
Optical functions and their implementation p. 4
Scope of this book p. 7
Organization of the book p. 8
Further reading p. 10
Acknowledgment p. 10
References p. 12
Optical components with small dimensions p. 13
Microlens performance p. 13
Diffraction limit p. 13
Aberrations p. 15
Quality criteria for lens performance p. 18
Scaling--from macro- to micro-components p. 25
Scaling of diffractive and refractive lenses p. 25
Scaling of prisms p. 27
List of symbols p. 30
Exercises p. 31
References p. 32
Lithographic fabrication technology p. 33
Pattern generation p. 33
Plotting and photoreduction p. 35
Laser beam writing p. 36
X-ray and e-beam writing p. 37
Grey-level masks p. 42
Special masks p. 45
Coating or thin layer deposition p. 46
Spin coating p. 46
Physical vapour deposition (PVD) p. 46
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) p. 49
Alignment and exposure p. 49
Exposure geometry p. 50
Light sources for mask lithography p. 52
Illumination with x-ray (synchrotron) and proton radiation p. 53
Multimask alignment p. 53
Through-wafer alignment p. 55
Pattern transfer p. 56
Etching p. 57
Laser micromachining--laser initiated ablation p. 62
Mechanical micromachining--diamond turning of microoptical components p. 63
Replication of microrelief structures p. 64
Diffusion--ion-exchange processes p. 67
Bonding of planar structures p. 67
Flip-chip bonding p. 67
Thermo-anodic bonding p. 69
List of new symbols p. 71
Exercises p. 73
References p. 74
Measurement and characterization of microoptics p. 77
Physical probing--profilometry p. 79
Interferometry p. 80
Types of interferometers p. 81
Phase-shifting interferometry p. 84
Evaluation of interferometric measurements p. 86
Imaging experiments p. 87
Array testing p. 88
List of new symbols p. 90
Exercises p. 91
References p. 92
Refractive microoptics p. 93
Surface profile microlenses p. 94
Melted photoresist lenses--reflow lenses p. 94
Microlens fabrication by mass transport mechanisms in semiconductors p. 100
Microlenses formed by volume change of a substrate material p. 102
Lithographically initiated volume growth in PMMA for microlens fabrication p. 103
Dispensed or droplet microlenses p. 106
Direct writing techniques for refractive microoptics p. 107
Grey-scale lithography for ROE fabrication p. 110
Gradient-index (GRIN) optics p. 110
GRIN rod lenses p. 111
Planar GRIN lenses p. 114
Microprisms and micromirrors p. 121
Lithography for the fabrication of microprisms p. 122
Micromachining of microprisms using single point diamond turning or embossing p. 124
Anisotropic etching of mirror structures in crystalline materials p. 124
List of new symbols p. 126
Exercises p. 127
References p. 128
Diffractive microoptics p. 133
Trading spatial resolution for reduced phase thickness p. 133
Blazing and phase quantization p. 133
Alternative quantization schemes for microlenses p. 136
Examples of diffractive optical components p. 137
Fabrication of diffractive optics p. 138
Multimask processing for kinoform DOEs p. 138
Fabrication errors for kinoform elements p. 139
Modelling of diffractive optics p. 141
Approaches to rigorous diffraction theory p. 142
Thin and thick gratings p. 145
Scalar diffraction theory p. 146
Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction p. 148
Linear kinoform grating p. 148
Diffractive lenses p. 152
Ray-tracing analysis of diffractive lenses p. 155
Chromatic aberrations of diffractive lenses p. 157
Photon sieves for X-ray focusing p. 158
Detour-phase diffractive optical elements p. 158
Polarisation-selective diffractive optical elements p. 160
Holographic optical elements as thick Bragg gratings p. 161
Effective medium theory of zero-order gratings p. 164
Design of diffractive optical elements p. 165
DOEs optimized for imaging along a tilted optical axis p. 166
Iterative design techniques for DOEs p. 168
List of new symbols p. 170
Exercises p. 171
References p. 172
Integrated waveguide optics p. 177
Modes in optical waveguides p. 177
Discrete waveguide modes p. 178
Field distribution of the modes p. 180
Waveguide couplers and beam splitters p. 181
External coupling p. 182
Coupling between waveguides p. 184
3 dB couplers for beam splitting p. 186
Branching waveguides p. 187
Waveguide optical modulators p. 187
The electro-optic effect p. 187
The electro-optic phase modulator p. 188
Polarisation modulator--dynamic phase retarder p. 188
Integrated intensity modulators p. 189
Electro-optic directional couplers p. 190
Applications of waveguide optics p. 191
Waveguide optics in optical interconnects p. 191
Waveguide optical sensors p. 195
List of new symbols p. 198
Exercises p. 199
References p. 200
Microoptical systems p. 203
Systems integration p. 204
MOEMS for optical systems integration p. 204
Stacked optics p. 207
Planar optics p. 208
Imaging systems for optical interconnects p. 211
Dilute arrays p. 212
Conventional imaging p. 213
Multichannel imaging system p. 214
Hybrid imaging p. 216
Integrated microoptical imaging systems p. 218
List of new symbols p. 221
Exercises p. 222
References p. 223
Optoelectronic devices and smart pixel arrays p. 225
Superlattices and multiple quantum wells p. 225
Hetero-superlattices p. 226
nipi-superlattices p. 226
The SEED (self-electro-optic effect device) p. 228
Structure and fabrication p. 228
Energy dissipation and efficiency p. 229
All-optical modulation p. 229
S-SEED p. 230
Performance of S-SEEDs p. 231
Vertical cavity surface emitting lasers p. 232
Structure and fabrication p. 233
Mirrors and resonator p. 235
I-V characteristics and efficiency p. 237
Spectral characteristics and thermal effects p. 238
Other material combinations p. 239
Smart pixel arrays (SPAs) p. 240
List of new symbols p. 243
Exercises p. 244
References p. 245
Array illuminators p. 247
Image plane array illumination p. 249
Phase-contrast array illumination p. 249
Multiple beam-splitting through aperture division p. 254
Multiple beam-splitting through waveguide coupling p. 254
Fresnel plane array illuminators p. 255
Fourier plane array illuminators p. 258
Dammann gratings p. 258
Modifications of Dammann's design procedure p. 262
Lenslet arrays as Fourier plane array illuminators p. 264
Cascading of beam-splitter gratings p. 265
Summary p. 266
List of new symbols p. 268
Exercises p. 269
References p. 270
Microoptical components for beam shaping p. 273
Beam shaping from a general perspective p. 274
Lateral laser beam shaping p. 278
Collimation of astigmatic beams p. 278
Laser beam homogenization p. 280
Axial beam shaping p. 283
Temporal beam shaping p. 286
Multiple aperture beam shaping p. 288
Intra-cavity beam shaping p. 289
Intra-cavity beam shaping of individual laser beams p. 289
Intra-cavity beam shaping of arrays of laser beams p. 291
List of new symbols p. 294
Exercises p. 295
References p. 296
Microoptics for optical information technology p. 301
Optical information processing p. 301
Analog information processing p. 301
Digital optical information processing p. 303
Optical interconnects p. 303
Terminology p. 304
Interconnect hierarchy p. 306
Optical clock distribution p. 311
Microoptics for optical data storage p. 311
Basics of optical data storage p. 311
Microoptics for read/write heads p. 315
Volume optical memories p. 321
List of new symbols p. 326
Exercises p. 327
References p. 328
Microoptics in optical design p. 333
Diffractive/refractive optical elements p. 334
Achromatisation with diffractive/refractive doublets p. 334
Interferometrically fabricated hybrid diffractive/refractive objective lenses p. 336
Diffractive correction of high-NA objectives p. 337
Multi-order lenses p. 339
Multilayer diffractive optical elements for achromatisation of photographic lenses p. 340
Athermalisation with hybrid elements p. 343
List of new symbols p. 346
Exercises p. 347
References p. 348
Novel directions p. 351
Beam steering with microlenses p. 352
Composite imaging with lenslet arrays p. 356
Confocal imaging with microoptics p. 359
Wavefront sensing with the Shack-Hartmann sensor p. 363
Adaptive microoptics p. 364
Microoptical manipulation of atoms p. 365
Photonic crystals p. 367
List of new symbols p. 373
Exercises p. 374
References p. 375
Conclusion p. 379
Glossary p. 381
Abbreviations p. 391
Solutions to exercises p. 395
Index p. 427