简介
the first encyclopedia to exploit the multimedia potential of linguistics
groud-breaking in scope-wider than any predecessor
the most anthoritative,up-to-date,comprehensive,and international reference source in its field
the second edition of the encyclopedia of language and linguistics,ell2,builds on foundation laid by the first.ell1 received enthusiastic reviews when it was published in 1993,edited by ron asher,and for a decade has been the most authoritative,international reference source in its field.
since the first edition,linguistics has been an explosive growth both in its own specializations and in interdisciplinary fields.ell2 will reflect this.it is entirely new work,with new and expanded sections,new topics,new editors,new authors and newly commissioned articles,while retaining from ell1 a handful of classic articles,mainly of historical interest.
it gives extensive coverage to the structure,history and use of all the major languages of the world and to a wide variety of less widely spoken languages,including engangered languages and it contains account of the linguistics situation in all countries of the world.ell2 also attends to the history of the discipline of linguistics itself and contains more than 650 biographies of linguists.
目录
Front Cover 1
Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics 4
Copyright Page 5
The Editor 6
Alphabetical List of Articles 8
Introduction 12
Contributors 18
A 24
Accessibility Theory 24
Bibliography 26
Acquisition of Meaning by Children 27
Conventionality and Contrast 28
In Conversation 28
Making Inferences 29
Pragmatics and Meaning 30
Another Approach 31
Sources of Meanings 32
Summary 32
Bibliography 33
Anaphora Resolution: Centering Theory 34
Anaphora Resolution with Centers of Attention 34
Centering Theory: Modeling Local Coherence with Centers of Attention 35
Centering Theory and Anaphora Resolution 38
Unspecified Aspects of Centering 38
Applications of Centering Theory as a Model of Local Coherence 40
Bibliography 40
Anaphora, Cataphora, Exophora, Logophoricity 41
Defining Anaphora, Cataphora, and Exophora 41
NP-Anaphora 42
The Syntactic Approach 42
The Semantic Approach 43
The Pragmatic Approach 44
VP-Anaphora 44
A Typology of VP-Anaphora 44
VP-Ellipsis: Properties, Issues, and Analyses 45
Properties 45
Issues 45
Analyses 45
Logophoricity 46
Defining Logophoricity 46
Cross-Linguistic Marking of Logophoricity 46
A Typology of Languages with Respect to Logophoricity 46
Some Implicational Universals with Respect to Logophoricity 46
Bibliography 48
Antonymy and Incompatibility 48
Incompatibility and Contrast 48
Antonymy and Opposition 49
Gradable Contrariety (Classical Antonymy, Polar Opposition) 49
Complementarity (Contradiction) 49
Directional Antonyms 49
Other Types of Opposition 49
Research Issues 50
Contrast and Lexical Development 50
A Lexical Relation? 50
Discourse Functions and Constructions 50
Defining Antonymy 51
Bibliography 51
Aristotle and Linguistics 51
Bibliography 54
Aspect and Aktionsart 54
Phases and Boundaries 54
Aspect Theories and Their Historical Development 55
Bibliography 57
Assertion 57
Bibliography 60
B 62
Boole and Algebraic Semantics 62
Bibliography 65
C 66
Categorial Grammar, Semantics in 66
Introduction 66
Montague Semantics 67
Lexical Semantics 68
Quantifiers and Scope 68
Anaphora 71
Reflexives 71
Pronouns 72
Computational Semantics for Categorial Grammars 73
Conclusion 73
Bibliography 73
Categorizing Percepts: Vantage Theory 74
Bibliography 75
Relevant Website 75
Category-Specific Knowledge 75
Principles of Organization 75
Modality-Specific Hypotheses 76
Domain-Specific Hypotheses 76
Feature-Based Hypotheses 76
Clues from Cognitive Neuropsychology 77
Explaining Category-Specific Semantic Deficits 77
Clues from Functional Neuroimaging 79
Conclusion 79
See also 80
Bibliography 80
Causatives 82
Defining Causative Constructions 82
Types of Causative Constructions 82
The Semantics of Causatives: Two Major Types of Causation 82
Causative Continuum and Causation Types 84
Bibliography 84
Character versus Content 85
Content/Character Distinction and Semantics 85
Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy 86
Bibliography 87
Classifiers and Noun Classes 88
Noun Classes 88
Noun Classifiers 90
Numeral Classifiers 91
Classifiers in Possessive Constructions 92
Verbal Classifiers 92
Locative Classifiers 93
Deictic Classifiers 93
Bibliography 95
Cognitive Semantics 96
Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Semantics 96
Meaning Is Encyclopedic in Scope 97
Categorization 99
The Usage-Basis of Cognitive Semantics 101
Construal 102
Figure-Ground Organization 102
Force Dynamics 103
Objective vs. Subjective Construal 104
Linguistic Conventions 104
Embodiment 105
Compositionality 105
The Conceptual Basis of Syntactic Categories 106
Relativism vs. Nativism 108
Conclusion 108
Bibliography 109
Coherence: Psycholinguistic Approach 109
Coherence in Text and in the Mind 109
Cohesion Markers 110
The Psychological Concept of a Connected, Coherent, Discourse Representation 111
Connecting Individuals: Anaphoric Reference 111
Causal Connectivity 111
Studies of Inferential Activity 112
Necessity and Elaboration 112
Situation-Specific Information: Scenario-Theory 112
Keeping Track of Things: Situation Models 113
Multiple Viewpoints 114
Coherence and Selective Processing 114
Selective Processing 114
Bibliography 115
Cohesion and Coherence 115
Bibliography 118
Collocations 120
Historical Use of the Term Collocation 120
Collocation in Modern Linguistics 120
Collocation and Lexicography 120
Finding Collocations in a Corpus (Annexes 1-3) 121
Collocation in Computational Linguistics, Pedagogy, and Translation 122
Conclusions and the Future 122
Bibliography 122
Color Terms 123
Color Perception 123
Color Vocabulary 123
Color Term Universals 124
Explaining Basic Color Terms 127
Bibliography 128
Relevant Website 128
Comparatives 129
Introduction 129
Gradability 129
Comparison 130
Comparison Cross-Linguistically 131
Bibliography 131
Comparative Constructions 132
Definition of the Domain 132
The Comparison of Inequality: Parameters 132
Predicate Marking in Comparative Constructions 134
Explanation of the Typology of Comparative Constructions 135
Bibliography 136
Componential Analysis 136
Componential Analysis 136
The European Tradition of Componential Analysis 136
The American Tradition of Componential Analysis 137
The Contemporary Situation 138
Bibliography 139
Compositionality 140
Bibliography 142
Concepts 142
The Classical Theory 142
Probabilistic Theories 143
The Theory-Theory 144
Conceptual Atomism 144
Bibliography 145
Concessive Clauses 145
Meaning and Syntactic Properties 146
Concessive Connectives 146
Relationship to Other Types of Adverbial Clauses 147
Types of Concessive Clauses 148
Bibliography 149
Conditionals 150
Form and Meaning 150
Truth-Conditional Semantics 150
Material Conditional 150
(Variably) Strict Implication 151
Relative Likelihood 151
Probability 152
Summary 152
Bibliography 152
Connectives in Text 153
The Semantics of Connectives 154
Connectives in Language Development and Discourse Processing 157
Conclusion 159
Bibliography 160
Connotation 161
Bibliography 164
Constants and Variables 164
Bibliography 165
Context 165
Introduction 165
Emergence 168
Context as a Sheer Situation 168
Relevant Settings 169
Semiotic Field, Symbolic and Demonstrative 169
Embedding 170
Social Field 172
Contextualization Processes 175
Conclusion 176
Bibliography 177
Context and Common Ground 178
History 178
Bases for Common Ground 179
Communal Common Ground 179
Personal Common Ground 179
Language and Communal Common Ground 180
Discourse and Personal Common Ground 180
Bibilography 181
Context Principle 181
Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle 182
Motivating the Context Principle 183
A Possible Objection to the Context Principle 185
Bibliography 187
Conventions in Language 188
Convention and Analyticity 188
Grice 188
Lewis 188
Lewis\u2019s General Notion of Convention 189
Conventions of Language 189
A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis 189
Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention 190
Convention versus Inference 190
Bibliography 191
Cooperative Principle 191
The Principle Itself 191
What Counts as Cooperation? 191
The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse 192
Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature 192
Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle 193
Problems with the Term 'Cooperation ' 193
Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims 194
Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle 195
Grammar 195
Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 195
Politeness Theory 196
Question Processing 196
Gender Studies 196
Teacher Research and Pedagogy 196
Conclusion 197
Bibliography 197
Coreference: Identity and Similarity 198
Defining Coreference 198
Identity 198
Similarity 198
Bound-Variable Anaphora 198
E-Type Anaphora 199
Anaphora of Laziness 199
Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora 200
Bibliography 200
Counterfactuals 201
Metalinguistic Approaches 201
Possible Worlds Approach 202
Some Issues 203
Bibliography 203
D 204
Default Semantics 204
Bibliography 207
Definite and Indefinite 207
What Does 'Definite ' Mean? 207
Uniqueness? 207
Familiarity? 208
Some Puzzling Cases 209
Grammatical Phenomena 210
Existential Sentences 210
The Have Construction 210
Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs 210
Other Kinds of Definite NPs 210
Bare NPs 211
Other Types of Indefinite NPs 211
Other Kinds of Categorizations 212
Old and New 212
The Givenness Hierarchy 212
The Accessibility Hierarchy 212
Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages 213
Bibliography 213
Definite and Indefinite Articles 214
Definite Articles 215
Indefinite Articles 216
Geographic Distribution 216
Concluding Remarks 216
Bibliography 217
Definite and Indefinite Descriptions 217
Russell\u2019s Theories of Description 218
Russell\u2019s Early Theory of Denoting 218
Russell\u2019s Mature Theory 218
Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica 218
Descriptions and Scope 219
Responses to Russell\u2019s Theory of Definite Descriptions 219
Strawson\u2019s Critique of Russell 219
The Ambiguity Thesis 220
Responses to Russell\u2019s Theory of Indefinite Descriptions 221
Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions 221
An Alternative Nonreferential Account 221
Bibliography 222
Definition in Lexicology 223
Bibliography 226
Definitions 227
Uses 227
Varieties 227
Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition 227
Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions 228
Uses Again 229
Bibliography 229
Demonstratives 230
The Semantic Properties of Demonstratives 230
The Syntactic Properties of Demonstratives 231
The Pragmatic Functions of Demonstratives 232
The Grammaticalization of Demonstratives 232
Grammatical Markers Derived from Pronominal Demonstratives 232
Grammatical Markers Derived from Adnominal Demonstratives 233
Grammatical Markers Derived from Adverbial Demonstratives 233
Grammatical Markers Derived from Demonstratives in Nonverbal Clauses 233
The Diachronic Origin of Demonstratives and Their Status in Language 234
Bibliography 234
Dictionaries 235
Bibliography 236
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: Relationship 236
Bibliography 240
Diminutives and Augmentatives 241
Bibliography 242
Direct Reference 243
What Is Direct Reference? 243
Some Closely Related Concepts 244
Problems with Direct Reference 245
Bibliography 245
Disambiguation 246
Introduction 246
Making Sense of Words 247
Polysemy 248
Context and Disambiguation 249
Measures of Difficulty 249
Applications and the Sense Inventory 251
Four Sources of Sense Inventories 252
Applications 253
Machine Translation 253
Lexicography and Information Extraction 253
Information Retrieval 253
Historical Context 254
Methods for Word Sense Disambiguation 255
Computational Formulation of the Problem 255
Dictionary-Based Methods 256
Selectional Restriction-Based Methods 257
Connectionist Methods 257
Domain-Based Methods 257
Supervised Corpus-Based Methods 257
Unsupervised Corpus-Based Approaches 258
Evaluation 259
Accuracy against a Reference Corpus 260
Senseval 261
Other Ways to Evaluate 261
Current Research Efforts 261
Bibliography 262
Discourse Anaphora 263
Introduction 263
Some Useful Concepts and Distinctions in the Study of Indexical Reference: \u2018Anaphora,\u2019 \u2018Deixis,\u2019 and \u2018Textual/Discourse Deixis\u2019 263
Three Essential Ingredients of the Operation of Discourse Anaphora: \u2018Antecedent-Trigger,\u2019 \u2018Antecedent,\u2019 and \u2018Anaphor\u2019 264
The Antecedent-Trigger 264
The Antecedent 265
The Anaphor 265
The Text - as Well as Discourse - Sensitivity of Discourse Anaphora 265
Conclusion 269
Bibliography 269
Discourse Domain 270
Bibliography 270
Discourse Parsing, Automatic 271
Introduction 271
Discourse Structure Representations 271
Observables Used for Inferring Discourse Relations 272
Algorithms 273
Algorithms for Identifying Discourse Relations 273
Algorithms for Discourse Structure Derivation (Discourse Parsing) 273
Performance 274
Public Resources 274
Bibliography 274
Relevant Websites 275
Discourse Representation Theory 275
The Problem of Unbound Anaphora 275
Basic Ideas 276
Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs) 277
Extensions: Tense and Plurals 278
Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers 279
Discourse Structures and Partial Models 280
Reasoning with DRSs 281
Definition 1 (DRT) 281
Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT) 281
Definition 3 (DRT Consequence) 281
Theorem 4 282
Proof 282
Theorem 5 282
The Treatment of Ambiguities 283
Bibliography 283
Discourse Semantics 284
Introduction 284
Incrementation 285
Subdomain Structures 290
Bibliography 291
Donkey Sentences 292
Bibliography 294
Dthat 294
Bibliography 295
Dynamic Semantics 295
Information and Information Change 295
Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics 296
Dynamic Predicate Logic 297
Update Semantics 298
Presuppositions 299
Further Reading 299
Bibliography 299
E 302
Event-Based Semantics 302
Bibliography 305
Evidentiality 305
Bibliography 310
Evolution of Semantics 311
Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge 311
The Importance of Motor Evolution 312
The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills 312
The Importance of Personality Types 313
The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge 314
Concept Formation 314
The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis 315
Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination 316
Polysemy 317
Abstract Concepts 317
Cultural Evolution 318
Bibliography 318
Existence 319
What Existence Is 319
The Hume-Kant View 319
The Frege-Russell View 320
The Meinong-Russell View 321
Bibliography 322
Expression Meaning vs Utterance/Speaker Meaning 322
Bibliography 324
Extensionality and Intensionality 324
Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality 325
Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings 326
Bibliography 327
F 328
Face 328
Background 328
'Face ' According to Goffman 328
Brown and Levinson\u2019s 'Face ' and Its Critics 329
Future of Face Research 330
Bibliography 330
Factivity 330
Bibliography 331
False Friends 331
Bibliography 333
Relevant Websites 333
Field Work Methods in Semantics 334
Bibliography 336
Folk Etymology 337
Bibliography 337
Formal Semantics 337
Introduction 337
Semantics vs. Lexicography 338
The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems 339
Truth and Semantic Competence 340
Semantic Modeling 344
The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface 348
Conclusions 352
Bibliography 353
Frame Semantics 353
Introduction 353
Oppositions 353
Word Choice 354
Beyond Literal Meaning 354
Frames and Framing 354
Cognitive Frames 354
Minsky Frames 355
Goffman Frames 355
The Word 'Frame ' in Linguistics 355
Case Frames 355
Merging the Two Research Strands 356
Frames and the Lexicon 356
An Example: The Revenge Frame 357
Polysemy 357
The FrameNet Database 358
The Basic Data 358
The Frame-to-Frame Relations 359
Applications and Extensions 360
Bibliography 360
Future Tense and Future Time Reference 361
Bibliography 362
G 364
Game-Theoretical Semantics 364
Bibliography 366
Gender 367
What Is Gender and Why Do Linguists Study It? 367
Theorizing Gender: From Difference to Diversity 367
Language and Gender in the Variationist Paradigm 368
Gendered Discourse Styles 371
Conclusion 372
Bibliography 373
General Semantics 373
Bibliography 374
Relevant Website 374
Generating Referring Expressions 375
Introduction: An Informal Characterization of the Problem 375
A More Formal Characterization of the Problem 375
Approaches to the Problem 377
Early Work 377
Producing Minimal Distinguishing Descriptions 377
More Efficient Algorithms 378
Referring to Entities Using Relations 378
Logical Extensions: Sets, Booleans, and Quantifiers 379
Broader Issues and Outstanding Problems 379
Other Forms of Anaphoric Reference 379
Initial Reference 379
The Pragmatics of Reference 379
Bibliography 380
Generative Lexicon 380
Introduction 380
Traditional Lexical Representations 381
The Nature of Polysemy 382
Levels of Lexical Meaning 383
Qualia Structure 384
Coercion and Compositionality 385
Complex Types in Language 386
Recent Developments in Generative Lexicon 386
Bibliography 387
Generative Semantics 390
Foreword (by Randy Harris) 390
Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley) 390
GS Positions on Controversial Issues 390
GS Policies on the Conduct of Research 391
Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach 392
The History of GS 393
Bibliography 394
Generic Reference 395
Forms of Generic Reference 395
Theory of Generic Reference 397
Bibliography 398
Generics, Habituals and Iteratives 398
Bibliography 401
Grammatical Meaning 401
Bibliography 403
H 404
Honorifics 404
Referent Honorifics 404
Titles 404
Pronouns 404
Nouns 405
Subject Honorifics 405
Humbling Forms 406
Addressee Honorifics 406
Avoidance Languages 407
Beautification 407
Form of Honorifics 408
Distribution and Development of Honorifics 409
Use of Honorifics 409
Power and Solidarity 409
Power-Based Honorific Pattern 410
Solidarity-Based Honorific Pattern 410
Demeanor 411
Formality 411
Relativity of Social Distance 411
Conclusion 412
Bibliography 413
Human Reasoning and Language Interpretation 413
Bibliography 416
Hyponymy and Hyperonymy 416
Hyponymy as a Paradigmatic Relation 416
Types and Properties of Hyponyms 417
Hyponymy and Lexical Organization 417
Bibliography 418
I 420
Ideational Theories of Meaning 420
Bibliography 422
Ideophones 423
Introduction 423
Formal Approach 423
Discourse Pragmatic Approach 424
Bibliography 426
Idioms 427
Semantic Opacity 427
Grammatical and Compositional Fixity 427
Syntactic Function 428
Verbs 428
Nouns 429
Adjectives 429
Adverbs 429
Others 429
Clicheacutes 429
Bibliography 430
Implicature 430
The Basic Notions 430
Beyond Grice 432
Presumptive Meanings: Levinson\u2019s Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature 432
Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn\u2019s Q- and R-Principles 436
Relevance Theory: Carston\u2019s Underdeterminacy Thesis 437
Quality Reconsidered 439
Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface 440
Conclusions 441
Bibliography 442
Indefinite Pronouns 444
General 444
The Some-Any Distinction 444
Functions of Indefinite Pronouns 445
Diachronic Developments 445
Inherently Negative Pronouns 446
Bibliography 446
Indeterminacy 447
The Argument from Below 447
Reactions to the Argument from Below 448
The Argument from Above 448
Reactions to the Argument from Above 448
Bibliography 449
Indexicality 449
Bibliography 452
Inference: Abduction, Induction, Deduction 452
Bibliography 455
Ingressives 455
Intensifying Reflexives 456
Terminology 456
Parameters of Variation 457
Agreement vs. Invariance 457
German 457
Finnish 457
Relation to Reflexive Anaphors 457
French 458
Selectional Restrictions 458
Japanese 458
Bibliography 458
Intention and Semantics 459
Bibliography 461
Interpreted Logical Forms 461
Propositional Attitude Reports 462
What Are ILFs? 462
Puzzles and Problems 463
The Simple Name Puzzle 463
The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle 463
The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle 463
The Hard Name Puzzle 464
Prospects 464
Bibliography 465
Interrogatives 466
Metasemantics 466
Semantics 468
Bibliography 469
Irony 469
Bibliography 471
J 472
Jargon 472
Bibliography 474
L 476
Lexical Acquisition 476
Introduction 476
Resources 477
Machine-Readable Dictionaries 477
Machine-Readable Thesauruses 477
Corpora 477
Multilingual Resources 477
Automatic Techniques 477
The Entries and Acquired Information 479
Pronunciation 479
Part-of-Speech 479
Morphology 479
Syntax, Argument Structure, and Preferences 479
Semantics 480
Pragmatics 481
Multiwords 481
Updating the Lexicon 481
Evaluation 482
Future Directions 482
Bibliography 483
Relevant Website 483
Lexical Conceptual Structure 484
Introduction 484
Overview of Conceptual Semantics 485
Autonomy of Semantics 485
Lexical Conceptual Structure 486
Ontological Categories 487
Conceptual Formation Rules 487
X-bar Semantics 488
General Constraints on Semantic Theories 489
Comparison with Other Works 490
Suggested Readings 491
Bibliography 491
Lexical Conditions 492
Bibliography 493
Lexical Fields 493
Introduction 493
Background 494
The Concept of Lexical Field 494
Relevance of Lexical Fields 496
Bibliography 496
Lexical Meaning, Cognitive Dependency of 496
Bibliography 498
Lexical Semantics 499
Word Knowledge 499
Historical Overview 499
Ambiguity and Polysemy 500
Lexical Relations 501
The Semantics of a Lexical Entry 501
Lexical Semantic Classifications 502
Argument Structure 502
Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition 503
Qualia Structure 504
Bibliography 505
Lexicology 507
Introduction: The Scope of Lexicology 507
Polysemy and Homonymy 507
Metaphor and the Differentiation of Meanings 509
Frame Semantics 510
Bibliography 511
Lexicon/Dictionary: Computational Approaches 512
What Are Computational Lexicons and Dictionaries? 512
History of Computational Lexicology 513
The Study of Computational Lexicons 513
Making Lexicons Tractable 513
What Can Be Extracted From Machine-Readable Dictionaries? 514
Lexical Semantics 514
Research Using Longman\u2019s Dictionary of Contem\u2014porary English 515
Semantic Networks 516
Using Lexicons 516
Language Engineering 516
Word-Sense Disambiguation 517
Information Extraction 517
Question Answering 517
Text Summarization 518
Speech Recognition and Speech Synthesis 518
The Semantic Imperative 519
Bibliography 519
Lexicon: Structure 520
Bibliography 523
Logic and Language 524
Introduction 524
The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole 524
Logic and Language in Frege 526
Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism 528
Wittgenstein on Logic and Language 529
Carnap and the Vienna Circle 530
Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism 531
Bibliography 532
Logical and Linguistic Notation 533
Propositional Calculus 534
Predicate Calculus 535
Bibliography 535
Logical Consequence 536
Fundamentals 536
The Formal Study of Logical Consequence 536
General Philosophical Concerns 538
Bibliography 539
Logical Form 539
Bibliography 542
M 544
Mass Expressions 544
Bibliography 547
Meaning Postulates 548
Bibliography 548
Meaning, Sense, and Reference 549
Meanings of Meaning 549
Meaning and Semiotics 550
Ferdinand de Saussure and Structuralism 550
C. S. Peirce 551
Dictionary vs. Encyclopedia 553
Umwelt - Meaning beyond Words 555
Summary 557
Bibliography 557
Memes 558
What Is a Meme? 558
How Are Memes like Genes? 558
How Are Memes unlike Genes? 559
The Current State of Memetics 559
Bibliography 559
Mentalese 559
The Basic Hypothesis 559
What Is Mentalese Like? 560
The Thinker\u2019s Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code? 560
Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics 561
Further Arguments for LOT 561
Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT 561
LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought 561
Bibliography 562
Meronymy 562
Definition of Meronymy 562
Types of Meronyms 563
Properties of Meronymy 564
Meronymy in Linguistic Theory 564
Bibliography 564
Metalanguage versus Object Language 565
Bibliography 565
Metaphor and Conceptual Blending 566
Conceptual Metaphor Theory 566
Higher-Level Mappings 567
Primary Metaphor and Experiential Grounding 567
Conceptual Blending Theory 568
Mental Space Theory 568
Conceptual Blending and Metaphor 569
Metaphor, Conceptual Blending, and Linguistic Theory 571
Bibliography 572
Metonymy 573
Metonymy: History and Terminology 573
Metonymy: From Cognition to Social Interaction 574
Metaphor and Metonymy 574
Conclusion 576
Bibliography 576
Modal Logic 577
Bibliography 583
Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers 584
Bibliography 587
Montague Semantics 587
Historical Background 587
Aims 588
The Compositional Approach 590
Interpretation in a Model 591
Extension and Intension 592
A Small Fragment 593
Some PTQ Phenomena 595
Developments 596
Further Reading 597
Bibliography 597
Mood and Modality 599
Introduction 599
Definitions and Categories 599
Modal Verbs 600
Classifications 601
Diachronic Paths of Development 603
Post-modality 605
Bibliography 605
Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force 607
Bibliography 611
Multivalued Logics 611
Bibliography 614
N 616
Natural Language Understanding, Automatic 616
'Understanding ' Natural Language 616
Conversational Agents 616
Meanings, Consequences, and Actions 618
Meaning Representations 619
Compositionality 621
Adequacy of First-Order Logic 622
Temporal, Modal, and Intensional Logics 623
Dynamic Logics 625
Ambiguity 626
Corpus-Based Approaches 627
Inference 628
Structural Inference 628
Statistical Inference 629
Summary 629
Bibliography 630
Natural Semantic Metalanguage 631
Introduction 631
Semantic Primes 632
Grammar of Semantic Primes 634
Using Natural Semantic Metalanguage for Lexical Semantics (Explications) 634
Explicating Directly into Semantic Primes 635
Verbs kill and break 635
Adjectives sad and unhappy 635
The Noun friend 636
Explicating Complex Concepts Using Semantic Molecules 636
Other Uses of Semantic Primes 638
Bibliography 638
Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning 639
Grice\u2019s Distinction 639
Grice\u2019s Theory of Non-natural Meaning 639
Other Remarks 640
Bibliography 640
Negation 640
Classical and Nonclassical Negation 640
Negation and Polarity 642
Negation Versus Denial 643
Metalinguistic Negation 644
Bibliography 646
Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 647
The Hornian System 647
The Levinsonian System 648
Further Neo-Gricean Contributions 650
Bibliography 650
Neologisms 651
Neologisms Based on Common Word Formation Devices 651
Affixation 652
Conversion 652
Clipping and Acronyms 652
Blends 652
The Structure of Blends 652
Splinters Become Morphemes 653
Trendy Neologisms 653
Bibliography 654
Relevant Websites 654
Nominalism 655
Extreme Realism: Plato\u2019s Ideal Exemplars 655
Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle\u2019s Universals 655
The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians 656
Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism 656
The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism 656
Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism 657
Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism 658
Bibliography 658
Nonmonotonic Inference 659
Bibliography 661
Nonstandard Language Use 662
Bibliography 665
Number 665
Nominal and Verbal Number 665
Number as an Obligatory Category 666
The Nominals Involved in the Number System 666
The Semantics of Number 668
Number Values 668
The Dual 668
The Trial 668
The Paucal 668
The Largest Systems 669
Number Mismatches and the Agreement Hierarchy 670
Number and Numerals 671
Conclusion 671
See also 671
References 671
Numerals 673
Numeral Systems: Their Structure and Development 673
Morphology and Syntax of Numeral Expressions 674
Bibliography 675
O 676
Onomasiology and Lexical Variation 676
The Scope of Onomasiological Research 676
The Contribution of Various Traditions of Research 677
A Conceptual Map of Onomasiology 678
Bibliography 678
Operators in Semantics and Typed Logics 679
lambda-terms 679
Equivalent Terms and Alphabetic Variance 680
Substitution 680
脽-conversion 681
Alternative Presentations 681
Congruence 681
Nameless Terms 681
Combinatory Logic 682
Parameters of Variation 682
Additional Operators 683
Types 683
Church Typing 683
Curry Typing 684
Resource-sensitivity 685
Linguistic Applications of the lambda-calculus 685
The Extensional Subsystem of Montague\u2019s PTQ 685
Bibliography 691
P 694
Partitives 694
Partitive and Pseudo-Partitive Nominal Constructions 694
Cross-Linguistic Variation and Geographic Distribution 695
Headedness in Pseudo-Partitive Constructions 696
Relations to Other Phenomena 697
References 697
Perfects, Resultatives, and Experientials 697
Bibliography 699
Performative Clauses 700
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 700
Necessary Condition 1 700
Necessary Condition 2 701
Necessary Condition 3 701
Necessary Condition 4 701
Sufficient Condition 701
Necessary Condition 5 702
Other Issues 702
Bibliography 703
Philosophical Theories of Meaning 704
The Direct Reference Theory 704
Meaning as Truth Conditions 705
Sense and Reference 706
The Idea Theory 707
Meaning as Use 708
Quine\u2019s Skepticism 709
Bibliography 709
Phrastic, Neustic, Tropic: Hare\u2019s Trichotomy 710
Bibliography 711
Plurality 711
Bibliography 713
Polarity Items 714
Negative Polarity Items 714
Positive Polarity Items 716
Bibliography 716
Politeness 717
Introduction 717
Constructs of Politeness 717
The 'Social Norm View ' 717
Pragmatic Approaches 717
Social Constructivist Approaches 719
Future Perspectives 720
Bibliography 720
Relevant Website 721
Politeness Strategies as Linguistic Variables 722
What Is Linguistic Politeness? 722
Politeness Theory 723
Criticisms of Brown and Levinson\u2019s Theory 726
Measuring Politeness 726
Leech\u2019s Politeness Principle 727
Post-Modern Approaches to Politeness 728
Social Variables and Politeness 730
Cross-Cultural Analyses of (Im)Politeness 730
Impoliteness 732
Where Next? 732
Bibliography 733
Polysemy and Homonymy 734
Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes 735
Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy 735
Bibliography 736
Possible Worlds 737
Bibliography 739
Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said 739
Bibliography 742
Pragmatic Presupposition 742
Introduction 742
Relation with Semantic Presupposition 744
Relation with Conversational Implicature 745
Pragmatic Presuppositions: 'Classical ' Definitions 746
Pragmatic Presuppositions as Felicity Conditions 747
Toward a Pragmatic Definition of Pragmatic Presupposition 748
Bibliography 749
Pragmatics and Semantics 750
Critical Introduction: Metatheoretical Presuppositions as Ideological Norms Constraining the Empirical Sciences of Pragmatics a 750
Three Methodological Stances to Pragmatics and Semantics 751
The Componential View 751
The Perspectival View 751
The Critical Sociological View 752
The Boundary Problem 754
Semanticism 754
Complementarism 754
From Complementarism to Pragmaticism 755
Historical Contextualization of the Ideologies of Pragmatics and Semantics 755
Bibliography 757
Pre-20th Century Theories of Meaning 757
Early Theories of Meaning 757
Intension and Extension in Port-Royal Logic 758
The Recognition of the Historical and Cultural Nature of Meaning 759
The Recognition of the Genius of a Language 759
The Study of Metaphors 760
The Study of Synonymy 760
Condillac\u2019s and the Ideacuteologues\u2019 Semantics 761
Meaning in 19th-Century Linguistics 762
General Evolution 762
Semasiology in Germany 763
The Development of the Seacutemantique in France 763
From Sematology to Significs in England 763
Summary 763
Bibliography 764
Presupposition 764
Introduction 764
Operational Criteria 765
The Logical Problem 766
The Threat to Bivalence 766
The Russell Tradition 766
The Frege-Strawson Tradition 767
The Trivalent Solution 768
The Discourse Approach 769
The Structural Source of Presuppositions 770
Bibliography 771
Projection Problem for Presupposition 771
Bibliography 774
Pronouns 774
Bibliography 776
Proper and Common Names, Impairments of 777
Bibliography 780
Proper Names 781
What Is a Proper Name? 781
Proper Names and Proper Nouns 781
Personal Name Inventories 781
Gender-Specific Names 781
Change in Name Popularity 781
Nicknames 782
Personal Names for Roles 782
Proper Names That Shift to Common Nouns 782
Names for Things Other Than Persons 782
Animal Names 782
Names for Rock Bands 783
Street Names 783
Brand Names 783
Alternative Names 783
Cognates and Translations 783
Philosophical Aspects of Names 784
Bibliography 784
Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects 785
What Are Proper Names? 785
Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference 785
Theories of Meaning 785
Millian Theories 785
Description Theories 785
Theories of Reference 786
Description Theories 787
Causal Theories 787
Hybrid Theories 788
Other Expressions 788
Definite Descriptions 788
Natural Kind Terms 788
Bibliography 788
Propositional and Predicate Logic 789
Introduction 789
Predicate Calculus 790
Propositional Calculus 795
Bibliography 796
Propositional Attitude Ascription 796
Bibliography 800
Propositional Attitudes 801
Bibliography 804
Propositions 805
Roles Played by Propositions 805
Propositions as Abstract Entities 805
Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities 806
Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean 806
Ontology or Semantics? 807
A Problem for the Structureless Approach 807
Problems for the Structured Approaches 807
Bibliography 809
Prosody 810
Linguistic Meaning 810
Paralinguistic Meaning 811
Bibliography 811
Prototype Semantics 812
Bibliography 814
Psychology, Semantics in 815
Content versus Function Words 815
Content Words: Features and Decomposition 815
High-Dimensional Space Analysis 816
Grounded and Embodied Meaning 816
Procedural Semantics, Affordances, and Embodiment 816
The Indexical Hypothesis 817
Combining Words: Compositionality and Blending 817
Function Words 818
Spatial Prepositions 818
Quantifiers and Expressions of Amount 819
Semantics in Processing 819
Ambiguity and Metonomy 819
Semantic Illusions 820
Bibliography 820
Q 822
Quantifiers 822
Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations 822
Some Non-Standard Quantifiers 825
Bibliography 827
R 830
Reference and Meaning, Causal Theories 830
Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories 830
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 830
The Causal Theory of Meaning 831
Problems and Prospects 832
Bibliography 832
Reference: Philosophical Theories 833
What Is Reference? 833
Descriptivism 834
Descriptivist Theories of Reference 834
Frege\u2019s and Russell\u2019s Versions of Descriptivism 834
Differences Between Descriptivist Views 835
Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 836
Problems With Descriptivism 836
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 837
Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory 837
Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference 838
Summary 839
Bibliography 839
Referential versus Attributive 840
Donnellan\u2019s Contrast 840
Donnellan\u2019s Use of the Contrast against Russell 841
Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke) 842
Semantic Treatments (Wettstein) 843
Developments 843
Bibliography 844
Register 845
Introduction 845
Lexical and Grammatical Differences among Registers 846
Lexical Differences across Registers 846
Grammatical Differences across Registers 846
Overall Patterns of Register Variation: The MD Approach 847
Conclusion 850
Bibliography 850
Representation in Language and Mind 851
The Relationship between Language and Thought 851
Mental Representation as Basic 851
Information-Based Theories 852
Teleological Theories 852
Conceptual Role Theories 852
Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation 853
Linguistic Representation as Basic 853
Norms-Based Theories 853
A Non-Reductive Proposal 853
Bibliography 854
Rhetoric, Classical 854
The Origins of Rhetoric 854
Defining Rhetoric 855
The Three Genres of Rhetoric 856
The Five Canons of Rhetoric 856
The Three Rhetorical Appeals 857
Classical Rhetoric in Postmodern Times 858
Bibiliography 858
Relevant Website 859
Rigid Designation 860
Introduction 860
Names and Rigidity 860
Types of Rigidity 860
Bibliography 861
Role and Reference Grammar, Semantics in 862
The Lexical Representation of Verbs 862
Semantic Roles 863
The Lexicon 867
The Semantics of Clause Linkage 868
Bibliography 870
S 872
Scope and Binding 872
Bibliography 874
Selectional Restrictions 875
Bibliography 876
Semantic Change 876
Introduction 876
Categories of Semantic Change 876
From the Perspective of Semantic Fields, Cognitive Linguistics, and Prototype Theory 878
From the Perspective of Neo-Gricean Pragmatics and Invited Inferencing Theory 879
From the Perspective of Work on Grammaticalization Theory 880
Constraints on Semantic Change 881
Conclusion 881
Bibliography 882
Semantic Change, the Internet and Text Messaging 883
Electronic Communication: Efficiency and Expressivity 883
Some Aspects of Semantic and Lexical Change in Netspeak and Texting 883
The Meanings of LOL: Semantic-Pragmatic Change in Electronic Communication 884
Conclusion: Diversity of Usages 885
Bibliography 886
Semantic Maps 886
Bibliography 889
Semantic Primitives 890
Bibliography 892
Semantic Value 893
Bibliography 897
Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 898
The Philosophical Debate 898
The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 903
Bibliography 905
Sense and Reference 906
The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction 906
More on Frege\u2019s Distinction 907
Subsequent History, and Criticisms 907
Bibliography 908
Serial Verb Constructions 909
Introduction 909
Grammar and Semantics 909
Formal Features 909
Functional Features 910
Diachronic Aspects 910
Aspect 911
Case 911
Directional Markers 911
Grammaticalization 911
Typological Challenges 911
Bibliography 912
Situation Semantics 913
Guide to Literature 915
Bibliography 916
Sound Symbolism 916
Onomatopoeia 917
Reduplicatives 917
Phonesthemes 917
Initial Phonesthemes 917
Initial Single Consonant C 917
Initial Double Consonant CC 917
Initial Treble Consonant CCC-: 918
Final Phonesthemes 918
Final Vowel Plus Consonant V+C 918
Final Vowel Plus Two Consonants V+CC 919
Final Vowel Plus Three Consonants V+CCC 919
Vowel Phonesthemes (Phonetic Symbolism) 919
Phonestheme Networks 920
Blends 920
Universality of Sound Symbolism 921
Onomatopoeia 921
Phonesthemes 921
Sound Symbolism in Poetry and Literature 922
Secondary Sound Symbolism 922
Spoonerisms 922
Rhyming Slang 922
Malapropisms 923
Folk Etymology 923
Intonation 923
Gesture 923
The Iconicity of Language 924
Bibliography 924
Spatial Expressions 925
Introduction 925
The Scope of Spatial Semantics 925
Basic Spatial Semantic Concepts 925
Trajector 926
Landmark 926
Frame of Reference 926
Region 927
Path 928
Direction 928
Motion 928
Theoretical Controversies 929
Semantic or Conceptual 929
Localization or Distribution 929
Semantic or Pragmatic 930
The Nature of Spatial Polysemy 930
Summary 931
Bibliography 931
Specificity 932
Bibliography 935
Speech Act Verbs 935
Definition and Terminology 935
Classes of Speech Act Verbs 935
Speech Acts and Speech Act Verbs 938
Performativity 939
Bibliography 940
Speech Acts 940
J. L. Austin 940
The Performative/Constative Dichotomy 940
Austin\u2019s Felicity Conditions on Performatives 941
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts 942
J. R. Searle 943
Searle\u2019s Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts 943
Searle\u2019s Typology of Speech Acts 944
Indirect Speech Acts 945
Speech Acts and Culture 947
Cross-Cultural Variation 947
Interlanguage Variation 948
Bibliography 948
Speech Acts and AI Planning Theory 949
Language and Action 949
Artificial Intelligence Planning Theory 950
The STRIPS Formalism 951
Knowledge, Belief, and Action 953
Problems 954
Bibliography 956
Speech Acts and Grammar 956
Language as Action: Performatives vs Constatives 956
What About Grammar? 957
Locution, Illocution, Perlocution 959
What About Grammar? 959
Categorizing Speech Acts 960
What About Grammar? 961
Bibliography 962
Stereotype Semantics 962
Bibliography 965
Summarization of Text: Automatic 966
Introduction 966
Terminology 966
Human Abstractors 967
Guidelines 967
Abstracting Behavior 968
Analysis of Empirical Abstracts 968
Relation of Abstracts to Sources 968
Challenges 968
Summarization Approaches: Overview 969
Producing Extracts 969
Early Approaches 969
Modern Approaches 969
Discourse-Level Features 970
Framework for Sentence Extraction 971
Corpus-Based Approaches 972
ImprovinSummary Coherence 973
Producing Abstracts 974
Cut-and-Paste Abstracts 974
Template-based Abstracts 975
Multidocument Summarization 975
Shallow Approaches 976
Relevance Versus Redundancy 976
Cohesion-based Models 976
Application: Biographical Summarization 976
Deep Approaches 976
Paraphrasing 976
Template Comparison 977
Summarization Evaluation 978
Intrinsic Methods 978
Factors InfluencinSummary Variability 978
Studies of Human Agreement 979
Measuring Informativeness 979
Automatic Scoring 979
Extrinsic Methods 980
Relevance Assessment 980
Reading Comprehension 980
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Methods 980
New Areas 981
Multimedia and Multimodal Summarization 981
Narrative Summarization 981
Conclusion 981
Bibliography 982
Synesthesia 983
Synesthesia in Thought 984
Synesthesia in Language 985
Bibliography 986
Synesthesia and Language 987
Colored Graphemes 987
Gustatory Phonemes 988
Structure versus Meaning 989
Semantic Categories as Synesthetic Inducers 990
Bibliography 991
Relevant Websites 992
Synonymy 992
Substitution and Synonymy 992
Avoidance of Synonymy 994
Current Approaches to Synonymy 994
Bibliography 994
Syntax-Semantics Interface 995
The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages 995
Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect 996
Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch 997
The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis 998
The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis 1000
The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis 1001
Shaking Things Up 1002
How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning? 1002
Where Does the Meaning Come From? 1004
See also 1004
Bibliography 1004
T 1006
Taboo Words 1006
The Nature of Taboo 1006
Taboo Words and the 'Naturalist Hypothesis ' 1006
The Case of Naming Taboo 1007
When Name Taboo Extends into Word Taboo 1008
Bibliography 1009
Taboo, Euphemism, and Political Correctness 1009
Euphemism and Taboo 1009
Types of Euphemism 1010
Shortening 1010
Circumlocution 1010
Remodeling 1010
Semantic Change 1010
External Borrowing 1011
Internal Borrowing 1011
Dysphemism and Orthophemism 1011
Changing Taboos 1012
Political Correctness and X-Phemism 1013
X-Phemism and Language Change 1014
Political Correctness and Self-Censorship 1014
Final Remarks 1015
Bibliography 1016
Temporal Logic 1016
Tense Logic 1016
Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic 1016
Semantics of Tense Logic 1017
Extensions of Tense Logic 1018
Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since ' and 'Until ' 1018
The Indeterminate Future 1018
Interval Semantics 1018
Other Forms of Temporal Logic 1019
Bibliography 1020
Tense 1020
On Tense Marking 1020
The Semantics of Tense: Basic Principles 1020
Absolute Tenses (Present, Past, and Future) 1021
Focal versus Nonfocal Tense Meanings 1022
Tense in Context: Pragmatics of Tense 1023
Relative Tenses and the (Present) Perfect 1024
Anterior (Relative Past) and Posterior (Relative Future) Tenses 1024
The (Present) Perfect 1025
Deviating from the Default Use 1026
Summary and Outlook 1026
Bibliography 1027
Thematic Structure 1027
Introduction 1027
Pamacrndotini\u2019s Kamacrrakas 1028
Thematic Roles in Modern Generative Grammar 1029
Decomposition Approaches 1030
Aspectual Decomposition 1031
Proto-Roles and Macro-Roles 1032
Composing Complex Word Meaning in the Syntax 1032
Bibliography 1034
Thesauruses 1035
Defining 'Thesaurus ' 1035
The Thesaurus in Dictionary Research 1035
Thesauruses in Specific Languages 1040
Interdisciplinary Aspects 1041
Bibliography 1042
Thought and Language 1043
The Relative Priority of Thought and Language 1043
The Cartesian View 1044
Behaviorism 1045
Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought 1045
A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language 1047
Bibliography 1048
Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning 1048
Bibliography 1052
Type versus Token 1052
The Distinction 1052
Its Usefulness 1053
Universals 1053
A Related Distinction 1053
Do Types Exist? 1054
Bibliography 1055
U 1056
Use Theories of Meaning 1056
Bibliography 1058
V 1060
Vagueness 1060
The Sorities Paradox (Paradox of the Heap) 1060
Vagueness Is (Almost) Ubiquitous 1060
Comparatives, Superlatives, Measure Phrases 1061
Vagueness in Context 1061
Vagueness versus Ambiguity 1062
Logical Behavior 1062
Vagueness as Ignorance 1062
Fuzzy Logic (Multivalued Logic) 1062
Supervaluation 1062
Higher-Order Vagueness 1063
Bibliography 1063
Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects 1064
Hallmarks of Vagueness 1064
Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness 1064
Philosophical Theories of Vagueness 1064
Bibliography 1066
Virtual Objects 1066
Bibliography 1069
W 1070
WordNet(s) 1070
The Princeton WordNet 1070
Background and Motivation 1070
Design and Contents 1070
Coverage 1070
Relations 1070
Nouns in WordNet 1070
Hyponymy 1070
Types vs. instances 1070
Meronymy 1070
Verbs 1071
Adjectives 1071
Inheritance and Reversibility 1071
WordNet as a Thesaurus 1072
WordNet as a Tool for Disambiguation 1072
Limitations of WordNet 1072
Other Wordnets 1073
The EuroWordNet Model (EWN) 1073
Global WordNets 1074
See also 1074
Bibliography 1074
Relevant Websites 1075
Index 1076
Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics 4
Copyright Page 5
The Editor 6
Alphabetical List of Articles 8
Introduction 12
Contributors 18
A 24
Accessibility Theory 24
Bibliography 26
Acquisition of Meaning by Children 27
Conventionality and Contrast 28
In Conversation 28
Making Inferences 29
Pragmatics and Meaning 30
Another Approach 31
Sources of Meanings 32
Summary 32
Bibliography 33
Anaphora Resolution: Centering Theory 34
Anaphora Resolution with Centers of Attention 34
Centering Theory: Modeling Local Coherence with Centers of Attention 35
Centering Theory and Anaphora Resolution 38
Unspecified Aspects of Centering 38
Applications of Centering Theory as a Model of Local Coherence 40
Bibliography 40
Anaphora, Cataphora, Exophora, Logophoricity 41
Defining Anaphora, Cataphora, and Exophora 41
NP-Anaphora 42
The Syntactic Approach 42
The Semantic Approach 43
The Pragmatic Approach 44
VP-Anaphora 44
A Typology of VP-Anaphora 44
VP-Ellipsis: Properties, Issues, and Analyses 45
Properties 45
Issues 45
Analyses 45
Logophoricity 46
Defining Logophoricity 46
Cross-Linguistic Marking of Logophoricity 46
A Typology of Languages with Respect to Logophoricity 46
Some Implicational Universals with Respect to Logophoricity 46
Bibliography 48
Antonymy and Incompatibility 48
Incompatibility and Contrast 48
Antonymy and Opposition 49
Gradable Contrariety (Classical Antonymy, Polar Opposition) 49
Complementarity (Contradiction) 49
Directional Antonyms 49
Other Types of Opposition 49
Research Issues 50
Contrast and Lexical Development 50
A Lexical Relation? 50
Discourse Functions and Constructions 50
Defining Antonymy 51
Bibliography 51
Aristotle and Linguistics 51
Bibliography 54
Aspect and Aktionsart 54
Phases and Boundaries 54
Aspect Theories and Their Historical Development 55
Bibliography 57
Assertion 57
Bibliography 60
B 62
Boole and Algebraic Semantics 62
Bibliography 65
C 66
Categorial Grammar, Semantics in 66
Introduction 66
Montague Semantics 67
Lexical Semantics 68
Quantifiers and Scope 68
Anaphora 71
Reflexives 71
Pronouns 72
Computational Semantics for Categorial Grammars 73
Conclusion 73
Bibliography 73
Categorizing Percepts: Vantage Theory 74
Bibliography 75
Relevant Website 75
Category-Specific Knowledge 75
Principles of Organization 75
Modality-Specific Hypotheses 76
Domain-Specific Hypotheses 76
Feature-Based Hypotheses 76
Clues from Cognitive Neuropsychology 77
Explaining Category-Specific Semantic Deficits 77
Clues from Functional Neuroimaging 79
Conclusion 79
See also 80
Bibliography 80
Causatives 82
Defining Causative Constructions 82
Types of Causative Constructions 82
The Semantics of Causatives: Two Major Types of Causation 82
Causative Continuum and Causation Types 84
Bibliography 84
Character versus Content 85
Content/Character Distinction and Semantics 85
Content/Character Distinction and Philosophy 86
Bibliography 87
Classifiers and Noun Classes 88
Noun Classes 88
Noun Classifiers 90
Numeral Classifiers 91
Classifiers in Possessive Constructions 92
Verbal Classifiers 92
Locative Classifiers 93
Deictic Classifiers 93
Bibliography 95
Cognitive Semantics 96
Cognitive Linguistics and Cognitive Semantics 96
Meaning Is Encyclopedic in Scope 97
Categorization 99
The Usage-Basis of Cognitive Semantics 101
Construal 102
Figure-Ground Organization 102
Force Dynamics 103
Objective vs. Subjective Construal 104
Linguistic Conventions 104
Embodiment 105
Compositionality 105
The Conceptual Basis of Syntactic Categories 106
Relativism vs. Nativism 108
Conclusion 108
Bibliography 109
Coherence: Psycholinguistic Approach 109
Coherence in Text and in the Mind 109
Cohesion Markers 110
The Psychological Concept of a Connected, Coherent, Discourse Representation 111
Connecting Individuals: Anaphoric Reference 111
Causal Connectivity 111
Studies of Inferential Activity 112
Necessity and Elaboration 112
Situation-Specific Information: Scenario-Theory 112
Keeping Track of Things: Situation Models 113
Multiple Viewpoints 114
Coherence and Selective Processing 114
Selective Processing 114
Bibliography 115
Cohesion and Coherence 115
Bibliography 118
Collocations 120
Historical Use of the Term Collocation 120
Collocation in Modern Linguistics 120
Collocation and Lexicography 120
Finding Collocations in a Corpus (Annexes 1-3) 121
Collocation in Computational Linguistics, Pedagogy, and Translation 122
Conclusions and the Future 122
Bibliography 122
Color Terms 123
Color Perception 123
Color Vocabulary 123
Color Term Universals 124
Explaining Basic Color Terms 127
Bibliography 128
Relevant Website 128
Comparatives 129
Introduction 129
Gradability 129
Comparison 130
Comparison Cross-Linguistically 131
Bibliography 131
Comparative Constructions 132
Definition of the Domain 132
The Comparison of Inequality: Parameters 132
Predicate Marking in Comparative Constructions 134
Explanation of the Typology of Comparative Constructions 135
Bibliography 136
Componential Analysis 136
Componential Analysis 136
The European Tradition of Componential Analysis 136
The American Tradition of Componential Analysis 137
The Contemporary Situation 138
Bibliography 139
Compositionality 140
Bibliography 142
Concepts 142
The Classical Theory 142
Probabilistic Theories 143
The Theory-Theory 144
Conceptual Atomism 144
Bibliography 145
Concessive Clauses 145
Meaning and Syntactic Properties 146
Concessive Connectives 146
Relationship to Other Types of Adverbial Clauses 147
Types of Concessive Clauses 148
Bibliography 149
Conditionals 150
Form and Meaning 150
Truth-Conditional Semantics 150
Material Conditional 150
(Variably) Strict Implication 151
Relative Likelihood 151
Probability 152
Summary 152
Bibliography 152
Connectives in Text 153
The Semantics of Connectives 154
Connectives in Language Development and Discourse Processing 157
Conclusion 159
Bibliography 160
Connotation 161
Bibliography 164
Constants and Variables 164
Bibliography 165
Context 165
Introduction 165
Emergence 168
Context as a Sheer Situation 168
Relevant Settings 169
Semiotic Field, Symbolic and Demonstrative 169
Embedding 170
Social Field 172
Contextualization Processes 175
Conclusion 176
Bibliography 177
Context and Common Ground 178
History 178
Bases for Common Ground 179
Communal Common Ground 179
Personal Common Ground 179
Language and Communal Common Ground 180
Discourse and Personal Common Ground 180
Bibilography 181
Context Principle 181
Sentence Primacy: Three Interpretations of the Context Principle 182
Motivating the Context Principle 183
A Possible Objection to the Context Principle 185
Bibliography 187
Conventions in Language 188
Convention and Analyticity 188
Grice 188
Lewis 188
Lewis\u2019s General Notion of Convention 189
Conventions of Language 189
A Basic Difficulty for Grice-Lewis 189
Chomskyan Accounts of Linguistic Convention 190
Convention versus Inference 190
Bibliography 191
Cooperative Principle 191
The Principle Itself 191
What Counts as Cooperation? 191
The Cooperative Principle and the Maxims of Cooperative Discourse 192
Failures to Fulfill Maxims and Implicature 192
Major Critiques of the Cooperative Principle 193
Problems with the Term 'Cooperation ' 193
Problems with the Maxims: The Haphazardness of Communication and the Specificity of Maxims 194
Scholarship Influenced by the Cooperative Principle 195
Grammar 195
Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 195
Politeness Theory 196
Question Processing 196
Gender Studies 196
Teacher Research and Pedagogy 196
Conclusion 197
Bibliography 197
Coreference: Identity and Similarity 198
Defining Coreference 198
Identity 198
Similarity 198
Bound-Variable Anaphora 198
E-Type Anaphora 199
Anaphora of Laziness 199
Bridging Cross-reference Anaphora 200
Bibliography 200
Counterfactuals 201
Metalinguistic Approaches 201
Possible Worlds Approach 202
Some Issues 203
Bibliography 203
D 204
Default Semantics 204
Bibliography 207
Definite and Indefinite 207
What Does 'Definite ' Mean? 207
Uniqueness? 207
Familiarity? 208
Some Puzzling Cases 209
Grammatical Phenomena 210
Existential Sentences 210
The Have Construction 210
Other Kinds of Definite and Indefinite NPs 210
Other Kinds of Definite NPs 210
Bare NPs 211
Other Types of Indefinite NPs 211
Other Kinds of Categorizations 212
Old and New 212
The Givenness Hierarchy 212
The Accessibility Hierarchy 212
Definite and Indefinite in Other Languages 213
Bibliography 213
Definite and Indefinite Articles 214
Definite Articles 215
Indefinite Articles 216
Geographic Distribution 216
Concluding Remarks 216
Bibliography 217
Definite and Indefinite Descriptions 217
Russell\u2019s Theories of Description 218
Russell\u2019s Early Theory of Denoting 218
Russell\u2019s Mature Theory 218
Definite Descriptions in Principia mathematica 218
Descriptions and Scope 219
Responses to Russell\u2019s Theory of Definite Descriptions 219
Strawson\u2019s Critique of Russell 219
The Ambiguity Thesis 220
Responses to Russell\u2019s Theory of Indefinite Descriptions 221
Referential Uses of Indefinite Descriptions 221
An Alternative Nonreferential Account 221
Bibliography 222
Definition in Lexicology 223
Bibliography 226
Definitions 227
Uses 227
Varieties 227
Comparatively Context-Free Forms of Definition 227
Comparatively Context-Dependent Definitions 228
Uses Again 229
Bibliography 229
Demonstratives 230
The Semantic Properties of Demonstratives 230
The Syntactic Properties of Demonstratives 231
The Pragmatic Functions of Demonstratives 232
The Grammaticalization of Demonstratives 232
Grammatical Markers Derived from Pronominal Demonstratives 232
Grammatical Markers Derived from Adnominal Demonstratives 233
Grammatical Markers Derived from Adverbial Demonstratives 233
Grammatical Markers Derived from Demonstratives in Nonverbal Clauses 233
The Diachronic Origin of Demonstratives and Their Status in Language 234
Bibliography 234
Dictionaries 235
Bibliography 236
Dictionaries and Encyclopedias: Relationship 236
Bibliography 240
Diminutives and Augmentatives 241
Bibliography 242
Direct Reference 243
What Is Direct Reference? 243
Some Closely Related Concepts 244
Problems with Direct Reference 245
Bibliography 245
Disambiguation 246
Introduction 246
Making Sense of Words 247
Polysemy 248
Context and Disambiguation 249
Measures of Difficulty 249
Applications and the Sense Inventory 251
Four Sources of Sense Inventories 252
Applications 253
Machine Translation 253
Lexicography and Information Extraction 253
Information Retrieval 253
Historical Context 254
Methods for Word Sense Disambiguation 255
Computational Formulation of the Problem 255
Dictionary-Based Methods 256
Selectional Restriction-Based Methods 257
Connectionist Methods 257
Domain-Based Methods 257
Supervised Corpus-Based Methods 257
Unsupervised Corpus-Based Approaches 258
Evaluation 259
Accuracy against a Reference Corpus 260
Senseval 261
Other Ways to Evaluate 261
Current Research Efforts 261
Bibliography 262
Discourse Anaphora 263
Introduction 263
Some Useful Concepts and Distinctions in the Study of Indexical Reference: \u2018Anaphora,\u2019 \u2018Deixis,\u2019 and \u2018Textual/Discourse Deixis\u2019 263
Three Essential Ingredients of the Operation of Discourse Anaphora: \u2018Antecedent-Trigger,\u2019 \u2018Antecedent,\u2019 and \u2018Anaphor\u2019 264
The Antecedent-Trigger 264
The Antecedent 265
The Anaphor 265
The Text - as Well as Discourse - Sensitivity of Discourse Anaphora 265
Conclusion 269
Bibliography 269
Discourse Domain 270
Bibliography 270
Discourse Parsing, Automatic 271
Introduction 271
Discourse Structure Representations 271
Observables Used for Inferring Discourse Relations 272
Algorithms 273
Algorithms for Identifying Discourse Relations 273
Algorithms for Discourse Structure Derivation (Discourse Parsing) 273
Performance 274
Public Resources 274
Bibliography 274
Relevant Websites 275
Discourse Representation Theory 275
The Problem of Unbound Anaphora 275
Basic Ideas 276
Discourse Representation Structures (DRSs) 277
Extensions: Tense and Plurals 278
Incorporating Generalized Quantifiers 279
Discourse Structures and Partial Models 280
Reasoning with DRSs 281
Definition 1 (DRT) 281
Definition 2 (Semantics of DRT) 281
Definition 3 (DRT Consequence) 281
Theorem 4 282
Proof 282
Theorem 5 282
The Treatment of Ambiguities 283
Bibliography 283
Discourse Semantics 284
Introduction 284
Incrementation 285
Subdomain Structures 290
Bibliography 291
Donkey Sentences 292
Bibliography 294
Dthat 294
Bibliography 295
Dynamic Semantics 295
Information and Information Change 295
Discourse Representation Theory and File Change Semantics 296
Dynamic Predicate Logic 297
Update Semantics 298
Presuppositions 299
Further Reading 299
Bibliography 299
E 302
Event-Based Semantics 302
Bibliography 305
Evidentiality 305
Bibliography 310
Evolution of Semantics 311
Cognitive Preadaptations for Semantic Knowledge 311
The Importance of Motor Evolution 312
The Importance of Intention-Reading Skills 312
The Importance of Personality Types 313
The Nature and Evolution of Semantic Knowledge 314
Concept Formation 314
The Nature of Lexical Concepts: The Natural Partitions Hypothesis 315
Lexical Concepts and Concept-Combination 316
Polysemy 317
Abstract Concepts 317
Cultural Evolution 318
Bibliography 318
Existence 319
What Existence Is 319
The Hume-Kant View 319
The Frege-Russell View 320
The Meinong-Russell View 321
Bibliography 322
Expression Meaning vs Utterance/Speaker Meaning 322
Bibliography 324
Extensionality and Intensionality 324
Semantical Aspects of Extensionality and Intensionality 325
Extensionality and Intensionality in Formal Settings 326
Bibliography 327
F 328
Face 328
Background 328
'Face ' According to Goffman 328
Brown and Levinson\u2019s 'Face ' and Its Critics 329
Future of Face Research 330
Bibliography 330
Factivity 330
Bibliography 331
False Friends 331
Bibliography 333
Relevant Websites 333
Field Work Methods in Semantics 334
Bibliography 336
Folk Etymology 337
Bibliography 337
Formal Semantics 337
Introduction 337
Semantics vs. Lexicography 338
The Notion of Synonymy and Its Problems 339
Truth and Semantic Competence 340
Semantic Modeling 344
The Semantics/Pragmatics Interface 348
Conclusions 352
Bibliography 353
Frame Semantics 353
Introduction 353
Oppositions 353
Word Choice 354
Beyond Literal Meaning 354
Frames and Framing 354
Cognitive Frames 354
Minsky Frames 355
Goffman Frames 355
The Word 'Frame ' in Linguistics 355
Case Frames 355
Merging the Two Research Strands 356
Frames and the Lexicon 356
An Example: The Revenge Frame 357
Polysemy 357
The FrameNet Database 358
The Basic Data 358
The Frame-to-Frame Relations 359
Applications and Extensions 360
Bibliography 360
Future Tense and Future Time Reference 361
Bibliography 362
G 364
Game-Theoretical Semantics 364
Bibliography 366
Gender 367
What Is Gender and Why Do Linguists Study It? 367
Theorizing Gender: From Difference to Diversity 367
Language and Gender in the Variationist Paradigm 368
Gendered Discourse Styles 371
Conclusion 372
Bibliography 373
General Semantics 373
Bibliography 374
Relevant Website 374
Generating Referring Expressions 375
Introduction: An Informal Characterization of the Problem 375
A More Formal Characterization of the Problem 375
Approaches to the Problem 377
Early Work 377
Producing Minimal Distinguishing Descriptions 377
More Efficient Algorithms 378
Referring to Entities Using Relations 378
Logical Extensions: Sets, Booleans, and Quantifiers 379
Broader Issues and Outstanding Problems 379
Other Forms of Anaphoric Reference 379
Initial Reference 379
The Pragmatics of Reference 379
Bibliography 380
Generative Lexicon 380
Introduction 380
Traditional Lexical Representations 381
The Nature of Polysemy 382
Levels of Lexical Meaning 383
Qualia Structure 384
Coercion and Compositionality 385
Complex Types in Language 386
Recent Developments in Generative Lexicon 386
Bibliography 387
Generative Semantics 390
Foreword (by Randy Harris) 390
Generative Semantics (by James D McCawley) 390
GS Positions on Controversial Issues 390
GS Policies on the Conduct of Research 391
Prominent and Influential Analyses Proposed within the GS Approach 392
The History of GS 393
Bibliography 394
Generic Reference 395
Forms of Generic Reference 395
Theory of Generic Reference 397
Bibliography 398
Generics, Habituals and Iteratives 398
Bibliography 401
Grammatical Meaning 401
Bibliography 403
H 404
Honorifics 404
Referent Honorifics 404
Titles 404
Pronouns 404
Nouns 405
Subject Honorifics 405
Humbling Forms 406
Addressee Honorifics 406
Avoidance Languages 407
Beautification 407
Form of Honorifics 408
Distribution and Development of Honorifics 409
Use of Honorifics 409
Power and Solidarity 409
Power-Based Honorific Pattern 410
Solidarity-Based Honorific Pattern 410
Demeanor 411
Formality 411
Relativity of Social Distance 411
Conclusion 412
Bibliography 413
Human Reasoning and Language Interpretation 413
Bibliography 416
Hyponymy and Hyperonymy 416
Hyponymy as a Paradigmatic Relation 416
Types and Properties of Hyponyms 417
Hyponymy and Lexical Organization 417
Bibliography 418
I 420
Ideational Theories of Meaning 420
Bibliography 422
Ideophones 423
Introduction 423
Formal Approach 423
Discourse Pragmatic Approach 424
Bibliography 426
Idioms 427
Semantic Opacity 427
Grammatical and Compositional Fixity 427
Syntactic Function 428
Verbs 428
Nouns 429
Adjectives 429
Adverbs 429
Others 429
Clicheacutes 429
Bibliography 430
Implicature 430
The Basic Notions 430
Beyond Grice 432
Presumptive Meanings: Levinson\u2019s Theory of Generalized Conversational Implicature 432
Division of Pragmatic Labor: Horn\u2019s Q- and R-Principles 436
Relevance Theory: Carston\u2019s Underdeterminacy Thesis 437
Quality Reconsidered 439
Implicature and the Grammar/Pragmatics Interface 440
Conclusions 441
Bibliography 442
Indefinite Pronouns 444
General 444
The Some-Any Distinction 444
Functions of Indefinite Pronouns 445
Diachronic Developments 445
Inherently Negative Pronouns 446
Bibliography 446
Indeterminacy 447
The Argument from Below 447
Reactions to the Argument from Below 448
The Argument from Above 448
Reactions to the Argument from Above 448
Bibliography 449
Indexicality 449
Bibliography 452
Inference: Abduction, Induction, Deduction 452
Bibliography 455
Ingressives 455
Intensifying Reflexives 456
Terminology 456
Parameters of Variation 457
Agreement vs. Invariance 457
German 457
Finnish 457
Relation to Reflexive Anaphors 457
French 458
Selectional Restrictions 458
Japanese 458
Bibliography 458
Intention and Semantics 459
Bibliography 461
Interpreted Logical Forms 461
Propositional Attitude Reports 462
What Are ILFs? 462
Puzzles and Problems 463
The Simple Name Puzzle 463
The Simple Demonstrative Puzzle 463
The Hard Demonstrative Puzzle 463
The Hard Name Puzzle 464
Prospects 464
Bibliography 465
Interrogatives 466
Metasemantics 466
Semantics 468
Bibliography 469
Irony 469
Bibliography 471
J 472
Jargon 472
Bibliography 474
L 476
Lexical Acquisition 476
Introduction 476
Resources 477
Machine-Readable Dictionaries 477
Machine-Readable Thesauruses 477
Corpora 477
Multilingual Resources 477
Automatic Techniques 477
The Entries and Acquired Information 479
Pronunciation 479
Part-of-Speech 479
Morphology 479
Syntax, Argument Structure, and Preferences 479
Semantics 480
Pragmatics 481
Multiwords 481
Updating the Lexicon 481
Evaluation 482
Future Directions 482
Bibliography 483
Relevant Website 483
Lexical Conceptual Structure 484
Introduction 484
Overview of Conceptual Semantics 485
Autonomy of Semantics 485
Lexical Conceptual Structure 486
Ontological Categories 487
Conceptual Formation Rules 487
X-bar Semantics 488
General Constraints on Semantic Theories 489
Comparison with Other Works 490
Suggested Readings 491
Bibliography 491
Lexical Conditions 492
Bibliography 493
Lexical Fields 493
Introduction 493
Background 494
The Concept of Lexical Field 494
Relevance of Lexical Fields 496
Bibliography 496
Lexical Meaning, Cognitive Dependency of 496
Bibliography 498
Lexical Semantics 499
Word Knowledge 499
Historical Overview 499
Ambiguity and Polysemy 500
Lexical Relations 501
The Semantics of a Lexical Entry 501
Lexical Semantic Classifications 502
Argument Structure 502
Event Structure and Lexical Decomposition 503
Qualia Structure 504
Bibliography 505
Lexicology 507
Introduction: The Scope of Lexicology 507
Polysemy and Homonymy 507
Metaphor and the Differentiation of Meanings 509
Frame Semantics 510
Bibliography 511
Lexicon/Dictionary: Computational Approaches 512
What Are Computational Lexicons and Dictionaries? 512
History of Computational Lexicology 513
The Study of Computational Lexicons 513
Making Lexicons Tractable 513
What Can Be Extracted From Machine-Readable Dictionaries? 514
Lexical Semantics 514
Research Using Longman\u2019s Dictionary of Contem\u2014porary English 515
Semantic Networks 516
Using Lexicons 516
Language Engineering 516
Word-Sense Disambiguation 517
Information Extraction 517
Question Answering 517
Text Summarization 518
Speech Recognition and Speech Synthesis 518
The Semantic Imperative 519
Bibliography 519
Lexicon: Structure 520
Bibliography 523
Logic and Language 524
Introduction 524
The Mathematicization of Logic: Leibniz and Boole 524
Logic and Language in Frege 526
Russell: Definite Descriptions and Logical Atomism 528
Wittgenstein on Logic and Language 529
Carnap and the Vienna Circle 530
Quine: the Thesis of Gradualism 531
Bibliography 532
Logical and Linguistic Notation 533
Propositional Calculus 534
Predicate Calculus 535
Bibliography 535
Logical Consequence 536
Fundamentals 536
The Formal Study of Logical Consequence 536
General Philosophical Concerns 538
Bibliography 539
Logical Form 539
Bibliography 542
M 544
Mass Expressions 544
Bibliography 547
Meaning Postulates 548
Bibliography 548
Meaning, Sense, and Reference 549
Meanings of Meaning 549
Meaning and Semiotics 550
Ferdinand de Saussure and Structuralism 550
C. S. Peirce 551
Dictionary vs. Encyclopedia 553
Umwelt - Meaning beyond Words 555
Summary 557
Bibliography 557
Memes 558
What Is a Meme? 558
How Are Memes like Genes? 558
How Are Memes unlike Genes? 559
The Current State of Memetics 559
Bibliography 559
Mentalese 559
The Basic Hypothesis 559
What Is Mentalese Like? 560
The Thinker\u2019s Public Language, or a Proprietary Inner Code? 560
Psycho-Syntax and Psycho-Semantics 561
Further Arguments for LOT 561
Theories of Mental Processing Are Committed to LOT 561
LOT Explains Some Pervasive Features of Thought 561
Bibliography 562
Meronymy 562
Definition of Meronymy 562
Types of Meronyms 563
Properties of Meronymy 564
Meronymy in Linguistic Theory 564
Bibliography 564
Metalanguage versus Object Language 565
Bibliography 565
Metaphor and Conceptual Blending 566
Conceptual Metaphor Theory 566
Higher-Level Mappings 567
Primary Metaphor and Experiential Grounding 567
Conceptual Blending Theory 568
Mental Space Theory 568
Conceptual Blending and Metaphor 569
Metaphor, Conceptual Blending, and Linguistic Theory 571
Bibliography 572
Metonymy 573
Metonymy: History and Terminology 573
Metonymy: From Cognition to Social Interaction 574
Metaphor and Metonymy 574
Conclusion 576
Bibliography 576
Modal Logic 577
Bibliography 583
Monotonicity and Generalized Quantifiers 584
Bibliography 587
Montague Semantics 587
Historical Background 587
Aims 588
The Compositional Approach 590
Interpretation in a Model 591
Extension and Intension 592
A Small Fragment 593
Some PTQ Phenomena 595
Developments 596
Further Reading 597
Bibliography 597
Mood and Modality 599
Introduction 599
Definitions and Categories 599
Modal Verbs 600
Classifications 601
Diachronic Paths of Development 603
Post-modality 605
Bibliography 605
Mood, Clause Types, and Illocutionary Force 607
Bibliography 611
Multivalued Logics 611
Bibliography 614
N 616
Natural Language Understanding, Automatic 616
'Understanding ' Natural Language 616
Conversational Agents 616
Meanings, Consequences, and Actions 618
Meaning Representations 619
Compositionality 621
Adequacy of First-Order Logic 622
Temporal, Modal, and Intensional Logics 623
Dynamic Logics 625
Ambiguity 626
Corpus-Based Approaches 627
Inference 628
Structural Inference 628
Statistical Inference 629
Summary 629
Bibliography 630
Natural Semantic Metalanguage 631
Introduction 631
Semantic Primes 632
Grammar of Semantic Primes 634
Using Natural Semantic Metalanguage for Lexical Semantics (Explications) 634
Explicating Directly into Semantic Primes 635
Verbs kill and break 635
Adjectives sad and unhappy 635
The Noun friend 636
Explicating Complex Concepts Using Semantic Molecules 636
Other Uses of Semantic Primes 638
Bibliography 638
Natural versus Nonnatural Meaning 639
Grice\u2019s Distinction 639
Grice\u2019s Theory of Non-natural Meaning 639
Other Remarks 640
Bibliography 640
Negation 640
Classical and Nonclassical Negation 640
Negation and Polarity 642
Negation Versus Denial 643
Metalinguistic Negation 644
Bibliography 646
Neo-Gricean Pragmatics 647
The Hornian System 647
The Levinsonian System 648
Further Neo-Gricean Contributions 650
Bibliography 650
Neologisms 651
Neologisms Based on Common Word Formation Devices 651
Affixation 652
Conversion 652
Clipping and Acronyms 652
Blends 652
The Structure of Blends 652
Splinters Become Morphemes 653
Trendy Neologisms 653
Bibliography 654
Relevant Websites 654
Nominalism 655
Extreme Realism: Plato\u2019s Ideal Exemplars 655
Moderate Realism or Conceptualism: Aristotle\u2019s Universals 655
The Moderate Realism/Conceptualism of Medieval Aristotelians 656
Abstraction, Induction, and Essentialism 656
The Ontological Commitments of Moderate Realism 656
Late Medieval and Modern Nominalism 657
Nominalism, Antirealism, and Skepticism 658
Bibliography 658
Nonmonotonic Inference 659
Bibliography 661
Nonstandard Language Use 662
Bibliography 665
Number 665
Nominal and Verbal Number 665
Number as an Obligatory Category 666
The Nominals Involved in the Number System 666
The Semantics of Number 668
Number Values 668
The Dual 668
The Trial 668
The Paucal 668
The Largest Systems 669
Number Mismatches and the Agreement Hierarchy 670
Number and Numerals 671
Conclusion 671
See also 671
References 671
Numerals 673
Numeral Systems: Their Structure and Development 673
Morphology and Syntax of Numeral Expressions 674
Bibliography 675
O 676
Onomasiology and Lexical Variation 676
The Scope of Onomasiological Research 676
The Contribution of Various Traditions of Research 677
A Conceptual Map of Onomasiology 678
Bibliography 678
Operators in Semantics and Typed Logics 679
lambda-terms 679
Equivalent Terms and Alphabetic Variance 680
Substitution 680
脽-conversion 681
Alternative Presentations 681
Congruence 681
Nameless Terms 681
Combinatory Logic 682
Parameters of Variation 682
Additional Operators 683
Types 683
Church Typing 683
Curry Typing 684
Resource-sensitivity 685
Linguistic Applications of the lambda-calculus 685
The Extensional Subsystem of Montague\u2019s PTQ 685
Bibliography 691
P 694
Partitives 694
Partitive and Pseudo-Partitive Nominal Constructions 694
Cross-Linguistic Variation and Geographic Distribution 695
Headedness in Pseudo-Partitive Constructions 696
Relations to Other Phenomena 697
References 697
Perfects, Resultatives, and Experientials 697
Bibliography 699
Performative Clauses 700
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions 700
Necessary Condition 1 700
Necessary Condition 2 701
Necessary Condition 3 701
Necessary Condition 4 701
Sufficient Condition 701
Necessary Condition 5 702
Other Issues 702
Bibliography 703
Philosophical Theories of Meaning 704
The Direct Reference Theory 704
Meaning as Truth Conditions 705
Sense and Reference 706
The Idea Theory 707
Meaning as Use 708
Quine\u2019s Skepticism 709
Bibliography 709
Phrastic, Neustic, Tropic: Hare\u2019s Trichotomy 710
Bibliography 711
Plurality 711
Bibliography 713
Polarity Items 714
Negative Polarity Items 714
Positive Polarity Items 716
Bibliography 716
Politeness 717
Introduction 717
Constructs of Politeness 717
The 'Social Norm View ' 717
Pragmatic Approaches 717
Social Constructivist Approaches 719
Future Perspectives 720
Bibliography 720
Relevant Website 721
Politeness Strategies as Linguistic Variables 722
What Is Linguistic Politeness? 722
Politeness Theory 723
Criticisms of Brown and Levinson\u2019s Theory 726
Measuring Politeness 726
Leech\u2019s Politeness Principle 727
Post-Modern Approaches to Politeness 728
Social Variables and Politeness 730
Cross-Cultural Analyses of (Im)Politeness 730
Impoliteness 732
Where Next? 732
Bibliography 733
Polysemy and Homonymy 734
Evidence Used in Differentiating Homonyms and Polysemes 735
Theoretical Approaches to Polysemy and Homonymy 735
Bibliography 736
Possible Worlds 737
Bibliography 739
Pragmatic Determinants of What Is Said 739
Bibliography 742
Pragmatic Presupposition 742
Introduction 742
Relation with Semantic Presupposition 744
Relation with Conversational Implicature 745
Pragmatic Presuppositions: 'Classical ' Definitions 746
Pragmatic Presuppositions as Felicity Conditions 747
Toward a Pragmatic Definition of Pragmatic Presupposition 748
Bibliography 749
Pragmatics and Semantics 750
Critical Introduction: Metatheoretical Presuppositions as Ideological Norms Constraining the Empirical Sciences of Pragmatics a 750
Three Methodological Stances to Pragmatics and Semantics 751
The Componential View 751
The Perspectival View 751
The Critical Sociological View 752
The Boundary Problem 754
Semanticism 754
Complementarism 754
From Complementarism to Pragmaticism 755
Historical Contextualization of the Ideologies of Pragmatics and Semantics 755
Bibliography 757
Pre-20th Century Theories of Meaning 757
Early Theories of Meaning 757
Intension and Extension in Port-Royal Logic 758
The Recognition of the Historical and Cultural Nature of Meaning 759
The Recognition of the Genius of a Language 759
The Study of Metaphors 760
The Study of Synonymy 760
Condillac\u2019s and the Ideacuteologues\u2019 Semantics 761
Meaning in 19th-Century Linguistics 762
General Evolution 762
Semasiology in Germany 763
The Development of the Seacutemantique in France 763
From Sematology to Significs in England 763
Summary 763
Bibliography 764
Presupposition 764
Introduction 764
Operational Criteria 765
The Logical Problem 766
The Threat to Bivalence 766
The Russell Tradition 766
The Frege-Strawson Tradition 767
The Trivalent Solution 768
The Discourse Approach 769
The Structural Source of Presuppositions 770
Bibliography 771
Projection Problem for Presupposition 771
Bibliography 774
Pronouns 774
Bibliography 776
Proper and Common Names, Impairments of 777
Bibliography 780
Proper Names 781
What Is a Proper Name? 781
Proper Names and Proper Nouns 781
Personal Name Inventories 781
Gender-Specific Names 781
Change in Name Popularity 781
Nicknames 782
Personal Names for Roles 782
Proper Names That Shift to Common Nouns 782
Names for Things Other Than Persons 782
Animal Names 782
Names for Rock Bands 783
Street Names 783
Brand Names 783
Alternative Names 783
Cognates and Translations 783
Philosophical Aspects of Names 784
Bibliography 784
Proper Names: Philosophical Aspects 785
What Are Proper Names? 785
Two Central Issues: Meaning and Reference 785
Theories of Meaning 785
Millian Theories 785
Description Theories 785
Theories of Reference 786
Description Theories 787
Causal Theories 787
Hybrid Theories 788
Other Expressions 788
Definite Descriptions 788
Natural Kind Terms 788
Bibliography 788
Propositional and Predicate Logic 789
Introduction 789
Predicate Calculus 790
Propositional Calculus 795
Bibliography 796
Propositional Attitude Ascription 796
Bibliography 800
Propositional Attitudes 801
Bibliography 804
Propositions 805
Roles Played by Propositions 805
Propositions as Abstract Entities 805
Two Approaches: Structured and Structureless Entities 806
Two Structured Approaches: Russellian and Fregean 806
Ontology or Semantics? 807
A Problem for the Structureless Approach 807
Problems for the Structured Approaches 807
Bibliography 809
Prosody 810
Linguistic Meaning 810
Paralinguistic Meaning 811
Bibliography 811
Prototype Semantics 812
Bibliography 814
Psychology, Semantics in 815
Content versus Function Words 815
Content Words: Features and Decomposition 815
High-Dimensional Space Analysis 816
Grounded and Embodied Meaning 816
Procedural Semantics, Affordances, and Embodiment 816
The Indexical Hypothesis 817
Combining Words: Compositionality and Blending 817
Function Words 818
Spatial Prepositions 818
Quantifiers and Expressions of Amount 819
Semantics in Processing 819
Ambiguity and Metonomy 819
Semantic Illusions 820
Bibliography 820
Q 822
Quantifiers 822
Standard Quantifiers: Some Linguistic Generalizations 822
Some Non-Standard Quantifiers 825
Bibliography 827
R 830
Reference and Meaning, Causal Theories 830
Reference, Meaning, and Causal Theories 830
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 830
The Causal Theory of Meaning 831
Problems and Prospects 832
Bibliography 832
Reference: Philosophical Theories 833
What Is Reference? 833
Descriptivism 834
Descriptivist Theories of Reference 834
Frege\u2019s and Russell\u2019s Versions of Descriptivism 834
Differences Between Descriptivist Views 835
Antidescriptivism and the Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 836
Problems With Descriptivism 836
The Causal-Historical Theory of Reference 837
Problems With the Causal-Historical Theory 837
Skepticism, Naturalism, and Minimalism About Reference 838
Summary 839
Bibliography 839
Referential versus Attributive 840
Donnellan\u2019s Contrast 840
Donnellan\u2019s Use of the Contrast against Russell 841
Pragmatic Treatments (Kripke) 842
Semantic Treatments (Wettstein) 843
Developments 843
Bibliography 844
Register 845
Introduction 845
Lexical and Grammatical Differences among Registers 846
Lexical Differences across Registers 846
Grammatical Differences across Registers 846
Overall Patterns of Register Variation: The MD Approach 847
Conclusion 850
Bibliography 850
Representation in Language and Mind 851
The Relationship between Language and Thought 851
Mental Representation as Basic 851
Information-Based Theories 852
Teleological Theories 852
Conceptual Role Theories 852
Constraints on a Theory of Mental Representation 853
Linguistic Representation as Basic 853
Norms-Based Theories 853
A Non-Reductive Proposal 853
Bibliography 854
Rhetoric, Classical 854
The Origins of Rhetoric 854
Defining Rhetoric 855
The Three Genres of Rhetoric 856
The Five Canons of Rhetoric 856
The Three Rhetorical Appeals 857
Classical Rhetoric in Postmodern Times 858
Bibiliography 858
Relevant Website 859
Rigid Designation 860
Introduction 860
Names and Rigidity 860
Types of Rigidity 860
Bibliography 861
Role and Reference Grammar, Semantics in 862
The Lexical Representation of Verbs 862
Semantic Roles 863
The Lexicon 867
The Semantics of Clause Linkage 868
Bibliography 870
S 872
Scope and Binding 872
Bibliography 874
Selectional Restrictions 875
Bibliography 876
Semantic Change 876
Introduction 876
Categories of Semantic Change 876
From the Perspective of Semantic Fields, Cognitive Linguistics, and Prototype Theory 878
From the Perspective of Neo-Gricean Pragmatics and Invited Inferencing Theory 879
From the Perspective of Work on Grammaticalization Theory 880
Constraints on Semantic Change 881
Conclusion 881
Bibliography 882
Semantic Change, the Internet and Text Messaging 883
Electronic Communication: Efficiency and Expressivity 883
Some Aspects of Semantic and Lexical Change in Netspeak and Texting 883
The Meanings of LOL: Semantic-Pragmatic Change in Electronic Communication 884
Conclusion: Diversity of Usages 885
Bibliography 886
Semantic Maps 886
Bibliography 889
Semantic Primitives 890
Bibliography 892
Semantic Value 893
Bibliography 897
Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 898
The Philosophical Debate 898
The Mentalist Picture of the Semantics-Pragmatics Boundary 903
Bibliography 905
Sense and Reference 906
The Origins and Central Core of the Sense/Reference Distinction 906
More on Frege\u2019s Distinction 907
Subsequent History, and Criticisms 907
Bibliography 908
Serial Verb Constructions 909
Introduction 909
Grammar and Semantics 909
Formal Features 909
Functional Features 910
Diachronic Aspects 910
Aspect 911
Case 911
Directional Markers 911
Grammaticalization 911
Typological Challenges 911
Bibliography 912
Situation Semantics 913
Guide to Literature 915
Bibliography 916
Sound Symbolism 916
Onomatopoeia 917
Reduplicatives 917
Phonesthemes 917
Initial Phonesthemes 917
Initial Single Consonant C 917
Initial Double Consonant CC 917
Initial Treble Consonant CCC-: 918
Final Phonesthemes 918
Final Vowel Plus Consonant V+C 918
Final Vowel Plus Two Consonants V+CC 919
Final Vowel Plus Three Consonants V+CCC 919
Vowel Phonesthemes (Phonetic Symbolism) 919
Phonestheme Networks 920
Blends 920
Universality of Sound Symbolism 921
Onomatopoeia 921
Phonesthemes 921
Sound Symbolism in Poetry and Literature 922
Secondary Sound Symbolism 922
Spoonerisms 922
Rhyming Slang 922
Malapropisms 923
Folk Etymology 923
Intonation 923
Gesture 923
The Iconicity of Language 924
Bibliography 924
Spatial Expressions 925
Introduction 925
The Scope of Spatial Semantics 925
Basic Spatial Semantic Concepts 925
Trajector 926
Landmark 926
Frame of Reference 926
Region 927
Path 928
Direction 928
Motion 928
Theoretical Controversies 929
Semantic or Conceptual 929
Localization or Distribution 929
Semantic or Pragmatic 930
The Nature of Spatial Polysemy 930
Summary 931
Bibliography 931
Specificity 932
Bibliography 935
Speech Act Verbs 935
Definition and Terminology 935
Classes of Speech Act Verbs 935
Speech Acts and Speech Act Verbs 938
Performativity 939
Bibliography 940
Speech Acts 940
J. L. Austin 940
The Performative/Constative Dichotomy 940
Austin\u2019s Felicity Conditions on Performatives 941
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Speech Acts 942
J. R. Searle 943
Searle\u2019s Felicity Conditions on Speech Acts 943
Searle\u2019s Typology of Speech Acts 944
Indirect Speech Acts 945
Speech Acts and Culture 947
Cross-Cultural Variation 947
Interlanguage Variation 948
Bibliography 948
Speech Acts and AI Planning Theory 949
Language and Action 949
Artificial Intelligence Planning Theory 950
The STRIPS Formalism 951
Knowledge, Belief, and Action 953
Problems 954
Bibliography 956
Speech Acts and Grammar 956
Language as Action: Performatives vs Constatives 956
What About Grammar? 957
Locution, Illocution, Perlocution 959
What About Grammar? 959
Categorizing Speech Acts 960
What About Grammar? 961
Bibliography 962
Stereotype Semantics 962
Bibliography 965
Summarization of Text: Automatic 966
Introduction 966
Terminology 966
Human Abstractors 967
Guidelines 967
Abstracting Behavior 968
Analysis of Empirical Abstracts 968
Relation of Abstracts to Sources 968
Challenges 968
Summarization Approaches: Overview 969
Producing Extracts 969
Early Approaches 969
Modern Approaches 969
Discourse-Level Features 970
Framework for Sentence Extraction 971
Corpus-Based Approaches 972
ImprovinSummary Coherence 973
Producing Abstracts 974
Cut-and-Paste Abstracts 974
Template-based Abstracts 975
Multidocument Summarization 975
Shallow Approaches 976
Relevance Versus Redundancy 976
Cohesion-based Models 976
Application: Biographical Summarization 976
Deep Approaches 976
Paraphrasing 976
Template Comparison 977
Summarization Evaluation 978
Intrinsic Methods 978
Factors InfluencinSummary Variability 978
Studies of Human Agreement 979
Measuring Informativeness 979
Automatic Scoring 979
Extrinsic Methods 980
Relevance Assessment 980
Reading Comprehension 980
Intrinsic Versus Extrinsic Methods 980
New Areas 981
Multimedia and Multimodal Summarization 981
Narrative Summarization 981
Conclusion 981
Bibliography 982
Synesthesia 983
Synesthesia in Thought 984
Synesthesia in Language 985
Bibliography 986
Synesthesia and Language 987
Colored Graphemes 987
Gustatory Phonemes 988
Structure versus Meaning 989
Semantic Categories as Synesthetic Inducers 990
Bibliography 991
Relevant Websites 992
Synonymy 992
Substitution and Synonymy 992
Avoidance of Synonymy 994
Current Approaches to Synonymy 994
Bibliography 994
Syntax-Semantics Interface 995
The Model of Perfection: Artificial Languages 995
Where Natural Languages Seem Imperfect 996
Theories of the Syntax-Semantics Mismatch 997
The Deep Split Structural Isomorphism Hypothesis 998
The Natural Language Perfection Hypothesis 1000
The Imperfections Reflect the Architecture of Grammars Hypothesis 1001
Shaking Things Up 1002
How Specified Is Grammatical Meaning? 1002
Where Does the Meaning Come From? 1004
See also 1004
Bibliography 1004
T 1006
Taboo Words 1006
The Nature of Taboo 1006
Taboo Words and the 'Naturalist Hypothesis ' 1006
The Case of Naming Taboo 1007
When Name Taboo Extends into Word Taboo 1008
Bibliography 1009
Taboo, Euphemism, and Political Correctness 1009
Euphemism and Taboo 1009
Types of Euphemism 1010
Shortening 1010
Circumlocution 1010
Remodeling 1010
Semantic Change 1010
External Borrowing 1011
Internal Borrowing 1011
Dysphemism and Orthophemism 1011
Changing Taboos 1012
Political Correctness and X-Phemism 1013
X-Phemism and Language Change 1014
Political Correctness and Self-Censorship 1014
Final Remarks 1015
Bibliography 1016
Temporal Logic 1016
Tense Logic 1016
Syntax of Priorean Tense Logic 1016
Semantics of Tense Logic 1017
Extensions of Tense Logic 1018
Increasing the Expressive Power: 'Since ' and 'Until ' 1018
The Indeterminate Future 1018
Interval Semantics 1018
Other Forms of Temporal Logic 1019
Bibliography 1020
Tense 1020
On Tense Marking 1020
The Semantics of Tense: Basic Principles 1020
Absolute Tenses (Present, Past, and Future) 1021
Focal versus Nonfocal Tense Meanings 1022
Tense in Context: Pragmatics of Tense 1023
Relative Tenses and the (Present) Perfect 1024
Anterior (Relative Past) and Posterior (Relative Future) Tenses 1024
The (Present) Perfect 1025
Deviating from the Default Use 1026
Summary and Outlook 1026
Bibliography 1027
Thematic Structure 1027
Introduction 1027
Pamacrndotini\u2019s Kamacrrakas 1028
Thematic Roles in Modern Generative Grammar 1029
Decomposition Approaches 1030
Aspectual Decomposition 1031
Proto-Roles and Macro-Roles 1032
Composing Complex Word Meaning in the Syntax 1032
Bibliography 1034
Thesauruses 1035
Defining 'Thesaurus ' 1035
The Thesaurus in Dictionary Research 1035
Thesauruses in Specific Languages 1040
Interdisciplinary Aspects 1041
Bibliography 1042
Thought and Language 1043
The Relative Priority of Thought and Language 1043
The Cartesian View 1044
Behaviorism 1045
Sellars: Language as a Precondition for Thought 1045
A Closer Look at the Relation between Thought and Language 1047
Bibliography 1048
Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning 1048
Bibliography 1052
Type versus Token 1052
The Distinction 1052
Its Usefulness 1053
Universals 1053
A Related Distinction 1053
Do Types Exist? 1054
Bibliography 1055
U 1056
Use Theories of Meaning 1056
Bibliography 1058
V 1060
Vagueness 1060
The Sorities Paradox (Paradox of the Heap) 1060
Vagueness Is (Almost) Ubiquitous 1060
Comparatives, Superlatives, Measure Phrases 1061
Vagueness in Context 1061
Vagueness versus Ambiguity 1062
Logical Behavior 1062
Vagueness as Ignorance 1062
Fuzzy Logic (Multivalued Logic) 1062
Supervaluation 1062
Higher-Order Vagueness 1063
Bibliography 1063
Vagueness: Philosophical Aspects 1064
Hallmarks of Vagueness 1064
Three Philosophical Debates About Vagueness 1064
Philosophical Theories of Vagueness 1064
Bibliography 1066
Virtual Objects 1066
Bibliography 1069
W 1070
WordNet(s) 1070
The Princeton WordNet 1070
Background and Motivation 1070
Design and Contents 1070
Coverage 1070
Relations 1070
Nouns in WordNet 1070
Hyponymy 1070
Types vs. instances 1070
Meronymy 1070
Verbs 1071
Adjectives 1071
Inheritance and Reversibility 1071
WordNet as a Thesaurus 1072
WordNet as a Tool for Disambiguation 1072
Limitations of WordNet 1072
Other Wordnets 1073
The EuroWordNet Model (EWN) 1073
Global WordNets 1074
See also 1074
Bibliography 1074
Relevant Websites 1075
Index 1076
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