Preface p. ix
How to read this book p. xi
Chapter 1 History of Near-field Optics p. 1
1.1 Notion of imaging system p. 1
1.2 Bases of imaging p. 4
1.2.1 Vision p. 4
1.2.2 Image p. 5
1.2.3 Far-field imaging systems p. 6
1.2.4 Notion of superresolution p. 7
1.2.5 Near-field imaging systems p. 9
1.3 History of near-field microscopy p. 12
1.3.1 Synge's speculation p. 12
1.3.2 J. O'Keefe's letter p. 12
1.3.3 E. Ash and G. Nicholls realization p. 13
1.3.4 Superresolution in imaging systems p. 13
1.3.5 Scanning tunnelling microscopy p. 14
1.3.6 Early optical near-field microscopes p. 14
Chapter 2 Non-radiating Sources & Non-propagating Fields p. 17
2.1 Introduction p. 17
2.1.1 A few words of terminology p. 18
2.2 Various non-radiating sources p. 18
2.3 Non-radiating classical distributions p. 18
2.4 Non-radiating sources by destructive interference p. 21
2.5 Extension of the notion of non-radiating source p. 23
2.5.1 Evanescent fields p. 24
2.5.2 Evanescent field generated by total internal reflection p. 24
2.5.3 Destructive-interference device p. 25
2.5.4 Resonant evanescent fields p. 26
2.5.5 Resonant spherical devices p. 29
Chapter 3 Evanescent Optics p. 31
3.1 Theory of Fresnel evanescent waves p. 32
3.1.1 Reflection and refraction laws p. 32
3.1.2 Total internal reflection p. 34
3.1.3 Energy flow and Poynting vector p. 37
3.1.4 Goos-Hanchen and transversal shifts p. 38
3.2 Evanescent fields generated by sub-wavelength diffraction p. 42
3.3 Light beam propagation p. 43
3.4 A particular case of evanescent waves: the plasmons p. 48
3.4.1 Definition of a plasmon p. 48
3.4.2 Theory p. 49
3.4.3 Scanning plasmon optical microscopy p. 51
Chapter 4 Theories and Modellings p. 57
4.1 Early works p. 57
4.2 Recent works p. 58
4.3 Different ways of approaching the theory of near-field optics p. 59
4.3.1 Physical approach p. 59
4.3.2 Model space p. 60
4.3.3 Global or non-global approach p. 60
4.4 Tip description p. 61
4.4.1 Description in a non-global scheme p. 61
4.4.2 Description in a global scheme p. 68
4.5 Light-sample interaction p. 69
4.5.1 Rigorous grating theory p. 69
4.5.2 The reciprocal-space perturbative method (RSPM) p. 73
4.5.3 Direct-space-global approaches p. 77
Chapter 5 Inverse Problem and Apparatus Function p. 93
5.1 Introduction p. 93
5.2 Inverse problem solution in band-limited far-field imaging p. 97
5.3 Inverse propagator and reciprocity theorem p. 98
5.3.1 Reciprocity theorem p. 98
5.4 Inverse problem solution in near-field imaging p. 100
5.5 Apparatus functions p. 100
5.5.1 Impulse response p. 101
5.5.2 Transfer function p. 101
Chapter 6 Criteria of Quality, Noise and Artifacts p. 103
6.1 Degrees of freedom of an optical system p. 103
6.1.1 Generalization of Lukosz's approach p. 104
6.1.2 Far-field case p. 105
6.1.3 Near-field case p. 106
6.1.4 Information capacity for noisy coherent signals p. 107
6.2 Noise in optical systems p. 107
6.2.1 Optical noises p. 108
6.2.2 External noises p. 111
6.3 Artifacts p. 112
6.3.1 Scanning modes in near-field microscopy p. 112
6.3.2 Notion of artifact p. 112
6.4 Comparison between the three scanning mode behaviours p. 115
6.4.1 Input parameters of the simulation p. 115
6.4.2 Constant distance mode p. 117
6.4.3 Constant height mode p. 118
6.4.4 Constant intensity mode p. 119
6.5 Notion of resolution p. 123
6.5.1 Detection p. 123
6.5.2 Localization p. 124
6.5.3 Resolution p. 125
6.5.4 The two-point criterion p. 126
6.5.5 Other estimates of resolution p. 127
6.5.6 Optical transfer function OTF p. 130
6.5.7 OTF in near-field optics p. 131
6.5.8 Experimental OTF in near-field optics p. 132
6.5.9 Contrast p. 133
6.5.10 New criteria of quality p. 136
Chapter 7 Nano-collectors and Nano-emitters p. 139
7.1 Precursors p. 139
7.2 Near-field collection and emission p. 140
7.2.1 Principle p. 140
7.2.2 Distance of collection/emission p. 141
7.2.3 Shape of nano-collectors/emitters p. 141
7.3 Various technologies p. 145
7.4 Bare tapers p. 148
7.4.1 Shaping techniques p. 148
7.4.2 Etching techniques p. 148
7.4.3 Effect of parameters p. 149
7.4.4 More sophisticated procedures p. 150
7.4.5 High aperture angle conical tips p. 151
7.4.6 Hot stretching techniques p. 151
7.4.7 Advantages and drawbacks of the two techniques p. 153
7.4.8 Tapered metal wire and silicon AFM tips p. 154
7.4.9 Pyramidal tips p. 155
7.5 Coated materials p. 157
7.5.1 Flat nano-apertures p. 158
7.5.2 Tapered nano-apertures p. 162
7.5.3 Tapered/cleaved fibres p. 164
7.5.4 Efficiency of tapered metal coated fibres p. 166
7.5.5 Laser damages p. 166
7.5.6 Realization of the aperture by other techniques p. 167
7.6 Nano-antenna used as a near-field perturbing system p. 170
7.7 Variant of tapered fibres p. 171
7.8 Chemical sensors used as fluorescent tips p. 171
Chapter 8 Instrumentation p. 175
8.1 Basic structure of near-field optical microscopes p. 175
8.2 Mechanical part p. 176
8.2.1 Translation stage p. 176
8.2.2 Practical case p. 179
8.2.3 Techniques for machining the piezo-electric tube p. 179
8.2.4 Compensation of the thermal drift p. 181
8.2.5 Connection of the wires on the electrodes p. 182
8.3 Holding of the nano-collector/emitter p. 182
8.3.1 Fibre as a nano-collector/emitter p. 182
8.3.2 Other collector/emitters p. 184
8.4 Anti-vibration devices p. 184
8.4.1 Distance control p. 185
8.5 Optical part p. 192
8.5.1 Source p. 192
8.5.2 Detector p. 194
8.5.3 Usual optical and opto-electronic components p. 195
8.6 Electronic stages p. 195
8.6.1 Synchronous detection p. 196
8.6.2 Distance control: the P.I.D. device p. 196
Chapter 9 Main Near-field Microscope Configurations p. 201
9.1 Transmission microscopes p. 202
9.2 Reflection microscopy p. 204
9.3 Tunnelling microscopy p. 206
9.4 Optical tunnelling microscopy p. 208
9.5 Plasmon microscopy p. 212
9.6 Hybrid techniques p. 213
9.6.1 Near-field microscopy with shear-force control p. 213
9.6.2 Contact near-field optical microscopy p. 214
Chapter 10 Near-field Image Processing p. 215
10.1 Generalities p. 215
10.1.1 Linear distortions p. 215
10.1.2 Non-linear distortions p. 216
10.2 Correction of distortions p. 218
10.2.1 Correction of linear distortions p. 218
10.2.2 Correction of non-linear distortions p. 220
10.2.3 Correction of tip-sample sticking p. 220
10.3 Filtering process p. 220
10.3.1 Direct or local filtering p. 220
10.3.2 Fourier or reciprocal filtering p. 227
10.4 Karhunen-Loeve transform and information extraction p. 229
Chapter 11 Applications of Near-field Microscopy p. 235
11.1 Introduction p. 235
11.1.1 First attempts: topography measurements p. 236
11.1.2 Local index variation measurement p. 236
11.2 Light trapping p. 242
11.3 Concept of nano-optics p. 243
11.4 A simple case: the frustrated reflection by a sphere or a tip p. 244
11.5 A second example: the resonant tunnelling effect p. 244
11.6 A more sophisticated example: a sub-wavelength periodic structure p. 245
11.7 Photonic transfer through segmented optical waveguides p. 246
Appendix A Basis of Optics p. 249
A.0.1 Unit Systems p. 249
A.1 Basic functions and operators in optics p. 250
A.1.1 Reminder on vectorial calculus p. 250
A.1.2 Relations connecting gradient, divergence and rotational p. 252
A.1.3 Dyadic analysis p. 252
A.2 Maxwell's equations p. 253
A.2.1 Material equations p. 254
A.2.2 Maxwell's equation in the dyadic scheme p. 254
A.3 Wave equation p. 255
A.3.1 There is no charges or currents ([characters not reproducible] = 0 and j = 0) p. 255
A.3.2 The medium is homogeneous, ([mu] and [epsilon] space-independent) p. 255
A.3.3 The medium is homogeneous and there is no charges or currents p. 256
A.3.4 Case of harmonic fields p. 256
A.4 Scalar and vector potentials p. 256
A.5 Static regimes p. 257
A.5.1 Poisson's and Laplace's equations p. 257
A.5.2 Field generated by a single charge p. 257
A.5.3 Flux of an electric field through a surface element p. 258
A.5.4 Gauss' theorem p. 258
A.6 Green's functions and Green's theorem p. 260
A.6.1 Green's functions in classical potential theory p. 260
A.6.2 Time dependent fields: the Helmholtz equation p. 261
A.6.3 Green's theorem p. 261
A.6.4 Green's dyadic p. 262
A.7 Expansion of a field in term of a set of plane waves p. 262
A.7.1 Basis p. 263
A.7.2 Angular spectrum expansion (A.S.E.) p. 263
A.8 Propagation of light using A.S.E. p. 265
A.9 Analysis of the results p. 266
Nomenclature p. 269
List of Acronyms p. 271
Glossary p. 275
Index p. 279
Author Index p. 289
Bibliography p. 297