简介
"When we speak, we mean more than we say. In this book Levinson explains some general processes that underlie presumptions in communication. This is the first extended discussion of preferred interpretation in language understanding, integrating much of the best research in linguistic pragmatics from the last two decades. Levinson outlines a theory of presumptive meanings, or preferred interpretations, governing the use of language, building on the idea of implicature developed by the philosopher H. P. Grice. Some of the indirect information carried by speech is presumed by default because it is carried by general principles, rather than inferred from specific assumptions about intention and context. Levinson examines this class of general pragmatic inferences in detail, showing how they apply to a wide range of linguistic constructions." (Midwest)
目录
Table Of Contents:
Conventions xi
Preface xiii
Note to Students xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Introduction 1(10)
On the Notion of a Generalized Conversationl Implicature 11(62)
The Argument 11(1)
Grice's Program 12(9)
Three Layers versus Two in the Theory of Communication 21(6)
The Argument from Design: The Maxims as Heuristics 27(8)
A Typology of GCIs 35(7)
The First (Q) Heuristic 35(2)
The Second (I) Heuristic 37(1)
The Third (M) Heuristic 38(1)
Interactions Between Implicatures 39(3)
Non-monotonicity and Default Reasoning 42(12)
Typology of Nonmonotonic Reasoning Systems 42(3)
Nonmonotonic Inference and Implicature 45(4)
Investigating the Defeasibility of Scalar Implicatures 49(5)
Against Reduction of GCIs to Nonce Speaker-Meaning 54(10)
Sperber-Wilson Relevance 55(5)
Implicature as Accommodation 60(4)
Generalized Implicature and Stable Patterns of Lexicalization 64(7)
Conclusions 71(2)
The Phenomena 73(92)
Introduction 73(2)
The Q Principle 75(37)
Q Inferences 75(4)
Entailment Scales 79(19)
Q-Contrasts Based on Other Kinds of Lexical Opposition 98(6)
Residual Problems: Scalar Implicature, GCIs, and PCIs 104(4)
Clausal Implicatures 108(4)
Exploring I-Inferences 112(23)
Formulating the Maxim or Heuristic 112(10)
Some Prominent I-Implicatures 122(13)
M-Implicatures and Horn's Division of Labor 135(18)
Horn's (1994) Division of Pragmatic Labor 137(16)
The Joint Effect of Q-, I- and M-Implicatures 153(12)
The Projection Problem 155(10)
Generalized Conversational Implicature and the Semantics/Pragmatics Interface 165(96)
Background 165(5)
The Received View: Semantics as Input to Pragmatics 170(28)
Grice's Circle: Implicatural Contributions to ``What Is Said'' 172(2)
Disambiguation 174(3)
Indexical Resolution 177(3)
Reference Identification 180(3)
Ellipsis Unpacking 183(1)
Generality Narrowing 184(2)
Some Interim Conclusions: Responses to Grice's Circle 186(12)
Intrusive Constructions 198(19)
Comparatives 199(6)
The Conditional 205(5)
Metalinguistic Negation and Other Negatives 210(3)
Conclusions Regarding Intrusive Constructions 213(4)
The Argument from Reference 217(19)
How Implicatures Can Determine Definite Reference 217(8)
Implicaturally Determined Reference and Donnellan's Referential Attributive Distinction 225(5)
The Obstinate Theorist's Final Retort on Reference 230(2)
Presemantic Pragmatics versus Postpragmatic Semantics 232(4)
Some Implications 236(23)
Disposing of the Existing Responses 236(7)
Modularity and Control 243(2)
Sag's Proposal and Possible Amplifications 245(3)
Kadmon's DRT Proposal and Possible Extensions 248(3)
Some Future Directions: DRT and Intrusive Constructions 251(5)
A Residual Problem: How to Get from Semantic Representations to Propositions 256(3)
Conclusions 259(2)
Grammar and Implicature: Sentential Anaphora Reexamined 261(106)
Grammar and Implicature 261(6)
Implicature and Coreference 267(13)
The Pragmatics of Local Anaphora 267(6)
Inferring Coreference 273(4)
Inferring Disjoint Reference 277(3)
Binding Theory and Pragmatics 280(79)
Introduction 280(5)
The A-First Account: Pragmatic Reduction to Binding Conditions B and C 285(42)
The B-First Account, with a Pragmatic Reduction of Binding Conditions A and C 327(18)
The B-then-A Account: Synthesis of the A-First and B-First Accounts 345(14)
Conclusions 359(8)
Summary 359(2)
Pragmatics versus Parameters in Language Learning and Language Change 361(1)
Pragmatics and the Generative Program 362(5)
Epilogue 367(12)
Predictive Power of the Theory of GCIs 368(3)
Presumptive Inference and General Reasoning 371(3)
Role of GCIs in Linguistic Theory 374(5)
Notes 379(46)
References 425(26)
Name Index 451(6)
Subject Index 457
Conventions xi
Preface xiii
Note to Students xvii
Acknowledgments xxi
Introduction 1(10)
On the Notion of a Generalized Conversationl Implicature 11(62)
The Argument 11(1)
Grice's Program 12(9)
Three Layers versus Two in the Theory of Communication 21(6)
The Argument from Design: The Maxims as Heuristics 27(8)
A Typology of GCIs 35(7)
The First (Q) Heuristic 35(2)
The Second (I) Heuristic 37(1)
The Third (M) Heuristic 38(1)
Interactions Between Implicatures 39(3)
Non-monotonicity and Default Reasoning 42(12)
Typology of Nonmonotonic Reasoning Systems 42(3)
Nonmonotonic Inference and Implicature 45(4)
Investigating the Defeasibility of Scalar Implicatures 49(5)
Against Reduction of GCIs to Nonce Speaker-Meaning 54(10)
Sperber-Wilson Relevance 55(5)
Implicature as Accommodation 60(4)
Generalized Implicature and Stable Patterns of Lexicalization 64(7)
Conclusions 71(2)
The Phenomena 73(92)
Introduction 73(2)
The Q Principle 75(37)
Q Inferences 75(4)
Entailment Scales 79(19)
Q-Contrasts Based on Other Kinds of Lexical Opposition 98(6)
Residual Problems: Scalar Implicature, GCIs, and PCIs 104(4)
Clausal Implicatures 108(4)
Exploring I-Inferences 112(23)
Formulating the Maxim or Heuristic 112(10)
Some Prominent I-Implicatures 122(13)
M-Implicatures and Horn's Division of Labor 135(18)
Horn's (1994) Division of Pragmatic Labor 137(16)
The Joint Effect of Q-, I- and M-Implicatures 153(12)
The Projection Problem 155(10)
Generalized Conversational Implicature and the Semantics/Pragmatics Interface 165(96)
Background 165(5)
The Received View: Semantics as Input to Pragmatics 170(28)
Grice's Circle: Implicatural Contributions to ``What Is Said'' 172(2)
Disambiguation 174(3)
Indexical Resolution 177(3)
Reference Identification 180(3)
Ellipsis Unpacking 183(1)
Generality Narrowing 184(2)
Some Interim Conclusions: Responses to Grice's Circle 186(12)
Intrusive Constructions 198(19)
Comparatives 199(6)
The Conditional 205(5)
Metalinguistic Negation and Other Negatives 210(3)
Conclusions Regarding Intrusive Constructions 213(4)
The Argument from Reference 217(19)
How Implicatures Can Determine Definite Reference 217(8)
Implicaturally Determined Reference and Donnellan's Referential Attributive Distinction 225(5)
The Obstinate Theorist's Final Retort on Reference 230(2)
Presemantic Pragmatics versus Postpragmatic Semantics 232(4)
Some Implications 236(23)
Disposing of the Existing Responses 236(7)
Modularity and Control 243(2)
Sag's Proposal and Possible Amplifications 245(3)
Kadmon's DRT Proposal and Possible Extensions 248(3)
Some Future Directions: DRT and Intrusive Constructions 251(5)
A Residual Problem: How to Get from Semantic Representations to Propositions 256(3)
Conclusions 259(2)
Grammar and Implicature: Sentential Anaphora Reexamined 261(106)
Grammar and Implicature 261(6)
Implicature and Coreference 267(13)
The Pragmatics of Local Anaphora 267(6)
Inferring Coreference 273(4)
Inferring Disjoint Reference 277(3)
Binding Theory and Pragmatics 280(79)
Introduction 280(5)
The A-First Account: Pragmatic Reduction to Binding Conditions B and C 285(42)
The B-First Account, with a Pragmatic Reduction of Binding Conditions A and C 327(18)
The B-then-A Account: Synthesis of the A-First and B-First Accounts 345(14)
Conclusions 359(8)
Summary 359(2)
Pragmatics versus Parameters in Language Learning and Language Change 361(1)
Pragmatics and the Generative Program 362(5)
Epilogue 367(12)
Predictive Power of the Theory of GCIs 368(3)
Presumptive Inference and General Reasoning 371(3)
Role of GCIs in Linguistic Theory 374(5)
Notes 379(46)
References 425(26)
Name Index 451(6)
Subject Index 457
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