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简介
The land application of biosolids is controversial because of the adverse effects of heavy metals and pathogens. This work reviews the subject, from an extensive discussion of heavy metals and pathogens to the fate and effects of organic compounds, describing the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of biosolids and offering a science-based perspective on the benefits and risks of land application to human health and the environment. Consideration is given to crop removal of metals and organics, soil erosion, and leaching, as well as to differing approaches and regulations in the US, Europe, and Canada. Epstein is an environmental scientist in the private sector and professor of public health at Boston University. Annotation copyrighted by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR
目录
Chapter 1 Land Application of Biosolids: A Prospective
Introduction p. 1
Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 2
Systems for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 5
History of Land Application of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 7
Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Production p. 9
Conclusion p. 11
References p. 11
Chapter 2 Characteristics of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids
Introduction p. 13
Physical Properties p. 14
Chemical Properties p. 14
Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients p. 15
Organic Compounds p. 16
Acidity (pH) p. 22
Plant Nutrients p. 23
Biological Properties p. 24
Microbiological p. 24
Organic Matter p. 24
Conclusion p. 25
References p. 26
Chapter 3 Plant Nutrients
Introduction p. 29
Nitrogen p. 31
Ammonification p. 32
Nitrification p. 33
Immobilization p. 33
Denitrification p. 33
Volatilization p. 33
Mineralization p. 34
Phosphorus p. 35
Potassium p. 36
Micronutrients p. 37
Conclusion p. 38
References p. 38
Chapter 4 Trace Elements: Heavy Metals and Micronutrients
Introduction p. 41
Sources of Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients in the Environment p. 42
Trace Elements in Biosolids p. 45
Trace Elements in Animals, Humans, Soils, and Plants p. 47
Arsenic (As) p. 47
Animals and Humans p. 47
Soils p. 47
Plants p. 47
Cadmium (Cd) p. 48
Animals and Humans p. 48
Soil p. 51
Plants p. 51
Chromium (Cr) p. 52
Animals and Humans p. 52
Soils p. 52
Plants p. 53
Copper (Cu) p. 53
Animals and Humans p. 53
Soils p. 54
Plants p. 54
Lead (Pb) p. 55
Animals and Humans p. 55
Soils p. 55
Plants p. 56
Mercury (Hg) p. 56
Animals and Humans p. 56
Soils p. 56
Plants p. 57
Molybdenum (Mo) p. 57
Animals and Humans p. 57
Soils p. 57
Plants p. 58
Nickel (Ni) p. 58
Animals and Humans p. 59
Soil p. 59
Plants p. 59
Selenium (Se) p. 60
Soil p. 60
Plants p. 60
Zinc (Zn) p. 60
Animals and Humans p. 60
Soil p. 61
Plants p. 61
Conclusion p. 61
References p. 61
Chapter 5 The Effect of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids on Uptake of Trace Elements and Reactions in Soil
Introduction p. 71
Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals p. 73
Reactions and Movement in Soils p. 82
Conclusion p. 83
References p. 83
Chapter 6 Organic Chemicals
Introduction p. 87
Fate of Toxic Organic Compounds when Biosolids Are Land Applied p. 89
Volatilization p. 91
Photodecomposition p. 92
Degradation p. 92
Plant Uptake of Organic Compounds p. 93
Conclusion p. 97
References p. 97
Chapter 7 Pathogens in Wastewater and Biosolids
Introduction p. 103
Pathogens in Wastewater, Sludge, and Biosolids p. 106
Removal of Pathogens by Wastewater Treatment Processes p. 110
Effect of Biosolids Treatment p. 113
Aerobic Digestion p. 116
Anaerobic digestion p. 116
Composting p. 119
Heat Drying p. 121
Alkaline Stabilization p. 121
Conclusion p. 121
References p. 122
Chapter 8 Pathogens in Soils and on Plants
Introduction p. 129
Pathogens in Soils p. 130
Bacteria p. 131
Viruses p. 134
Parasites p. 137
Pathogens on Plants p. 138
Conclusion p. 139
References p. 139
Chapter 9 Land Application: Agricultural Crop Responses
Introduction p. 143
Agronomic Crops p. 145
Research Results Prior to 1970 p. 145
Research Results 1970 to 2001 p. 146
Forestry and Reclamation p. 148
Forestry p. 150
Reclamation p. 150
Conclusion p. 152
References p. 153
Chapter 10 Effect of Land Application of Biosolids on Animals and Other Organisms
Introduction p. 159
Animals p. 160
Domestic p. 160
Wildlife p. 164
Microbes p. 166
Earthworms p. 167
Conclusion p. 168
References p. 168
Chapter 11 Regulations
Introduction p. 173
Concepts and Approaches to Regulations p. 173
United States p. 174
Method I p. 180
Method II p. 180
Class A Requirements p. 184
Process Requirements p. 184
Alternative 1 Thermally Treated Sewage Sludge [(503.32(a)(3)] p. 184
Alternative 2 Sewage Sludge Treated in a High pH-Temperature Process (Alkaline Treatment) [503.329(a)(94)] p. 184
Alternative 3 Sewage Sludge Treated in Other Processes [503.32(a)(5)] p. 185
Alternative 4 Sewage Sludge Treated in Unknown Processes [503.31(a)(6)] p. 185
Alternative 5 Use of Process to Further Reduce Pathogens (PFRP) [503.32(a)(7)] p. 185
Alternative 6 Use of a Process Equivalent to PFRP [503.32(a)(8)] p. 185
Class B Requirements p. 185
Canada p. 186
Europe p. 187
Conclusion p. 189
References p. 191
Index p. 193
Introduction p. 1
Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 2
Systems for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 5
History of Land Application of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids p. 7
Wastewater Treatment and Biosolids Production p. 9
Conclusion p. 11
References p. 11
Chapter 2 Characteristics of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids
Introduction p. 13
Physical Properties p. 14
Chemical Properties p. 14
Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients p. 15
Organic Compounds p. 16
Acidity (pH) p. 22
Plant Nutrients p. 23
Biological Properties p. 24
Microbiological p. 24
Organic Matter p. 24
Conclusion p. 25
References p. 26
Chapter 3 Plant Nutrients
Introduction p. 29
Nitrogen p. 31
Ammonification p. 32
Nitrification p. 33
Immobilization p. 33
Denitrification p. 33
Volatilization p. 33
Mineralization p. 34
Phosphorus p. 35
Potassium p. 36
Micronutrients p. 37
Conclusion p. 38
References p. 38
Chapter 4 Trace Elements: Heavy Metals and Micronutrients
Introduction p. 41
Sources of Trace Elements, Heavy Metals, and Micronutrients in the Environment p. 42
Trace Elements in Biosolids p. 45
Trace Elements in Animals, Humans, Soils, and Plants p. 47
Arsenic (As) p. 47
Animals and Humans p. 47
Soils p. 47
Plants p. 47
Cadmium (Cd) p. 48
Animals and Humans p. 48
Soil p. 51
Plants p. 51
Chromium (Cr) p. 52
Animals and Humans p. 52
Soils p. 52
Plants p. 53
Copper (Cu) p. 53
Animals and Humans p. 53
Soils p. 54
Plants p. 54
Lead (Pb) p. 55
Animals and Humans p. 55
Soils p. 55
Plants p. 56
Mercury (Hg) p. 56
Animals and Humans p. 56
Soils p. 56
Plants p. 57
Molybdenum (Mo) p. 57
Animals and Humans p. 57
Soils p. 57
Plants p. 58
Nickel (Ni) p. 58
Animals and Humans p. 59
Soil p. 59
Plants p. 59
Selenium (Se) p. 60
Soil p. 60
Plants p. 60
Zinc (Zn) p. 60
Animals and Humans p. 60
Soil p. 61
Plants p. 61
Conclusion p. 61
References p. 61
Chapter 5 The Effect of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids on Uptake of Trace Elements and Reactions in Soil
Introduction p. 71
Plant Uptake of Heavy Metals p. 73
Reactions and Movement in Soils p. 82
Conclusion p. 83
References p. 83
Chapter 6 Organic Chemicals
Introduction p. 87
Fate of Toxic Organic Compounds when Biosolids Are Land Applied p. 89
Volatilization p. 91
Photodecomposition p. 92
Degradation p. 92
Plant Uptake of Organic Compounds p. 93
Conclusion p. 97
References p. 97
Chapter 7 Pathogens in Wastewater and Biosolids
Introduction p. 103
Pathogens in Wastewater, Sludge, and Biosolids p. 106
Removal of Pathogens by Wastewater Treatment Processes p. 110
Effect of Biosolids Treatment p. 113
Aerobic Digestion p. 116
Anaerobic digestion p. 116
Composting p. 119
Heat Drying p. 121
Alkaline Stabilization p. 121
Conclusion p. 121
References p. 122
Chapter 8 Pathogens in Soils and on Plants
Introduction p. 129
Pathogens in Soils p. 130
Bacteria p. 131
Viruses p. 134
Parasites p. 137
Pathogens on Plants p. 138
Conclusion p. 139
References p. 139
Chapter 9 Land Application: Agricultural Crop Responses
Introduction p. 143
Agronomic Crops p. 145
Research Results Prior to 1970 p. 145
Research Results 1970 to 2001 p. 146
Forestry and Reclamation p. 148
Forestry p. 150
Reclamation p. 150
Conclusion p. 152
References p. 153
Chapter 10 Effect of Land Application of Biosolids on Animals and Other Organisms
Introduction p. 159
Animals p. 160
Domestic p. 160
Wildlife p. 164
Microbes p. 166
Earthworms p. 167
Conclusion p. 168
References p. 168
Chapter 11 Regulations
Introduction p. 173
Concepts and Approaches to Regulations p. 173
United States p. 174
Method I p. 180
Method II p. 180
Class A Requirements p. 184
Process Requirements p. 184
Alternative 1 Thermally Treated Sewage Sludge [(503.32(a)(3)] p. 184
Alternative 2 Sewage Sludge Treated in a High pH-Temperature Process (Alkaline Treatment) [503.329(a)(94)] p. 184
Alternative 3 Sewage Sludge Treated in Other Processes [503.32(a)(5)] p. 185
Alternative 4 Sewage Sludge Treated in Unknown Processes [503.31(a)(6)] p. 185
Alternative 5 Use of Process to Further Reduce Pathogens (PFRP) [503.32(a)(7)] p. 185
Alternative 6 Use of a Process Equivalent to PFRP [503.32(a)(8)] p. 185
Class B Requirements p. 185
Canada p. 186
Europe p. 187
Conclusion p. 189
References p. 191
Index p. 193
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