Acquiring Images p. 1
Human reliance on images for information p. 1
Video cameras p. 6
CCD cameras p. 8
Camera artefacts and limitations p. 11
Color cameras p. 13
Camera resolution p. 15
CMOS cameras p. 17
Focusing p. 18
Electronics and bandwidth limitations p. 18
Pixels p. 20
Grey-scale resolution p. 23
Noise p. 24
High-depth images p. 26
Color imaging p. 30
Digital camera limitations p. 36
Color spaces p. 40
Color correction p. 47
Color displays p. 50
Image types p. 52
Range imaging p. 54
Multiple images p. 59
Stereoscopy p. 64
Imaging requirements p. 71
Printing and Storage p. 79
Printing p. 79
Dots on paper p. 83
Color printing p. 88
Printing hardware p. 93
Film recorders p. 98
File storage p. 100
Storage media p. 101
Magnetic recording p. 103
Databases for images p. 104
Browsing and thumbnails p. 108
Lossless coding p. 111
Reduced color palettes p. 117
JPEG compression p. 118
Wavelet compression p. 123
Fractal compression p. 126
Digital movies p. 128
Correcting Imaging Defects p. 131
Contrast expansion p. 131
Noisy images p. 137
Neighborhood averaging p. 140
Neighborhood ranking p. 152
Other neighborhood noise-reduction methods p. 162
Defect removal, maximum entropy, and maximum likelihood p. 167
Nonuniform illumination p. 171
Fitting a background function p. 174
Rank leveling p. 179
Color shading p. 181
Non-planar views p. 188
Computer graphics p. 189
Geometrical distortion p. 191
Alignment p. 193
Interpolation p. 197
Morphing p. 202
Image Enhancement (Processing in the Spatial Domain) p. 207
Contrast manipulation p. 208
Histogram equalization p. 211
Laplacian p. 219
Derivatives p. 229
The Sobel and Kirsch operators p. 232
Rank operations p. 248
Texture p. 257
Fractal analysis p. 261
Implementation notes p. 263
Image math p. 264
Subtracting images p. 265
Multiplication and division p. 269
Processing Images in Frequency Space p. 277
Some necessary mathematical preliminaries p. 277
What frequency space is all about p. 277
The Fourier transform p. 278
Fourier transforms of real functions p. 281
Frequencies and orientations p. 286
Measuring images in the frequency domain p. 286
Orientation and spacing p. 286
Preferred orientation p. 290
Texture and fractals p. 295
Filtering images p. 297
Isolating periodic noise p. 297
Masks and filters p. 303
Selection of periodic information p. 309
Convolution and correlation p. 314
Fundamentals of convolution p. 314
Imaging system characteristics p. 317
Noise and Wiener deconvolution p. 322
Motion blur p. 325
Template matching and correlation p. 328
Autocorrelation p. 331
Conclusion p. 332
Segmentation and Thresholding p. 333
Thresholding p. 333
Multiband images p. 336
Two-dimensional thresholds p. 338
Multiband thresholding p. 341
Thresholding from texture p. 346
Multiple thresholding criteria p. 349
Textural orientation p. 352
Accuracy and reproducibility p. 357
Including position information p. 359
Selective histograms p. 366
Boundary lines p. 367
Contours p. 370
Image representation p. 374
Other segmentation methods p. 377
The general classification problem p. 379
Processing Binary Images p. 383
Boolean operations p. 383
Combining Boolean operations p. 387
Masks p. 389
From pixels to features p. 391
Boolean logic with features p. 397
Selecting features by location p. 402
Double thresholding p. 405
Erosion and dilation p. 409
Opening and closing p. 410
Isotropy p. 413
Measurements using erosion and dilation p. 417
Extension to grey-scale images p. 419
Morphology neighborhood parameters p. 420
Examples of use p. 421
The custer p. 425
Euclidean distance map p. 425
Watershed segmentation p. 429
Ultimate eroded points p. 434
Other EDM-based measurements p. 434
Skeletonization p. 435
Boundary lines and thickening p. 437
Combining skeleton and EDM p. 442
Global Image Measurements p. 445
Global measurements and stereology p. 445
Surface area p. 450
ASTM Grain Size p. 453
Multiple types of surfaces p. 456
Length p. 457
Sampling strategies p. 459
Determining number p. 461
Curvature, connectivity, and the disector p. 462
Anisotropy and gradients p. 466
Size distributions p. 469
Classical stereology (unfolding) p. 471
Feature-Specific Measurements p. 475
Brightness measurements p. 475
Determining location p. 481
Orientation p. 484
Neighbor relationships p. 486
Alignment p. 491
Counting features p. 496
Special counting procedures p. 499
Feature size p. 502
Circles and ellipses p. 505
Caliper dimensions p. 507
Perimeter p. 509
Describing shape p. 512
Fractal dimension p. 515
Harmonic analysis p. 519
Topology p. 522
Three-dimensional measurements p. 523
Feature Recognition and Classification p. 527
Template matching and cross-correlation p. 527
Parametric description p. 529
Decision points p. 534
Multidimensional classification p. 536
Learning systems p. 541
kNN and cluster analysis p. 545
Expert systems p. 549
Neural nets p. 551
Syntactical models p. 553
3D Image Acquisition p. 555
Volume imaging versus sections p. 555
Basics of reconstruction p. 558
Algebraic reconstruction methods p. 563
Maximum entropy p. 567
Defects in reconstructed images p. 568
Beam hardening p. 573
Imaging geometries p. 578
Three-dimensional tomography p. 580
High-resolution tomography p. 587
3D Image Visualization p. 591
Sources of 3D data p. 591
Serial sections p. 592
Optical sectioning p. 596
Sequential removal p. 598
Stereo measurement p. 600
3D data sets p. 604
Slicing the data set p. 606
Arbitrary section planes p. 611
The use of color p. 615
Volumetric display p. 615
Stereo viewing p. 618
Special display hardware p. 623
Ray tracing p. 624
Reflection p. 628
Surfaces p. 633
Multiply connected surfaces p. 639
Image processing in 3D p. 643
Measurements on 3D images p. 647
Conclusion p. 649
Imaging Surfaces p. 651
Producing surfaces p. 651
Devices that image surfaces by physical contact p. 653
Noncontacting measurements p. 657
Microscopy of surfaces p. 659
Surface composition imaging p. 662
Processing of range images p. 664
Processing of composition maps p. 668
Data presentation and visualization p. 669
Rendering and visualization p. 674
Analysis of surface data p. 677
Profile measurements p. 683
The Birmingham measurement suite p. 687
New approaches--topographic analysis and fractal dimensions p. 693
References p. 699
Index p. 717