简介
"Astronomy is fundamentally an observational science and as such it is important for astronomers and astrophysicists to understand how their data are collected and analyzed. This book is a comprehensive review of current observational techniques and instruments. Featuring instruments such as Spitzer, Herschel, Fermi, ALMA, Super-Kamiokande, SNO, IceCube, the Auger Observatory, LIGO and LISA, the book discusses the capabilities and limitations of different types of instruments. It explores the sources and types of noise and provides statistical tools necessary for interpreting observational data. Due to the increasingly important role of statistical analysis, the techniques of Bayesian analysis are discussed, along with sampling techniques and model comparison. With topics ranging from fundamental subjects such as optics, photometry and spectroscopy, to neutrinos, cosmic rays and gravitational waves, this book is essential for graduate students in astronomy and physics"--
"This book is based on a required course for graduate students in Astronomy which I taught for a number of years at the University of Illinois. The premise of the course is that both theoretical astronomers and observers should have a basic understanding of the techniques of observational astronomy. The emphasis is on the underlying physics of the methods of detection and analytical tools (statistical and otherwise) that astronomers find useful. The great variety of current instruments and the rapid introduction of new instruments preclude an in-depth treatment of the peculiarities and idiosyncrasies of many instruments. But every instrument has its own idiosyncrasies and its own ways of corrupting the data and deceiving the observer. The topics in this book, I believe, cover the minimum which is required of anyone attempting to understand or interpret observational astronomy data.Throughout the book equations are given in mks (SI) units so that it is easy to relate the discussion to practical quantities such as volts and watts. This is true even in the chapter on gravitational waves, a subject for which many texts and references use geometrized units (c = 1, G = 1). I prefer to keep c and G around rather than having to figure out where to put them when I need to calculate power"--
目录
Table Of Contents:
List of illustrations xiv
List of tables xx
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
1 Astrophysical information 1(13)
1.1 Electromagnetic radiation 1(1)
1.2 Other carriers of information 2(1)
1.3 Intervening regions 3(11)
1.3.1 Intergalactic/interstellar medium 3(2)
1.3.2 Interplanetary medium 5(1)
1.3.3 Earth's atmosphere 5(7)
Exercises 12(2)
2 Photometry 14(14)
2.1 Specific intensity (brightness) 14(1)
2.2 Etendue 14(2)
2.3 Moments of the specific intensity 16(1)
2.4 Energy density 17(1)
2.5 Flux from a surface of uniform brightness 17(1)
2.6 Blackbody radiation 18(2)
2.7 Atmospheric extinction (calibration) 20(2)
2.8 Absolute calibration 22(1)
2.9 Photometric magnitudes 23(5)
Exercises 25(3)
3 Positional astronomy 28(24)
3.1 Fundamental reference system 28(1)
3.2 Time systems 28(4)
3.2.1 Atomic time 28(2)
3.2.2 Astronomical time scales 30(1)
3.2.3 Sidereal time 31(1)
3.2.4 Solar time 31(1)
3.3 Spherical astronomy 32(7)
3.3.1 Spherical coordinates (in general) 32(1)
3.3.2 Latitude and longitude 33(1)
3.3.3 Equatorial coordinates 33(1)
3.3.4 Horizon coordinate system (alt/az) 34(1)
3.3.5 Conversion formulae (alt/az ↔ ha/dec) 35(1)
3.3.6 Ecliptic coordinates 35(1)
3.3.7 Galactic coordinates 36(1)
3.3.8 Spherical trigonometry 37(1)
3.3.9 Rotation matrices 37(2)
3.4 Epoch 39(1)
3.5 Changes in equatorial coordinates 40(6)
3.5.1 Proper motion 40(1)
3.5.2 Precession 41(1)
3.5.3 Nutation 41(1)
3.5.4 Parallax 42(1)
3.5.5 Aberration of starlight 42(1)
3.5.6 Reduction of celestial coordinates (overview) 43(1)
3.5.7 Gravitational deflection of light 44(1)
3.5.8 Refraction 45(1)
3.5.9 Parallactic angle 46(1)
3.6 Astrometry 46(6)
3.6.1 Historical techniques 46(2)
3.6.2 Hipparcos 48(1)
Exercises 49(3)
4 Fourier transforms 52(14)
4.1 Fourier series 52(2)
4.2 Fourier integrals 54(8)
4.2.1 Relationship to the Dirac delta (impulse) function 55(1)
4.2.2 Parseval's theorem (Rayleigh's theorem) 56(1)
4.2.3 Properties of Fourier transforms 57(1)
4.2.4 Convolution 58(1)
4.2.5 Autocorrelation (Wiener-Khinchin theorem) 58(1)
4.2.6 Common functions and Fourier transform pairs 59(1)
4.2.7 Aliasing and Shannon's sampling theorem 60(2)
4.3 Higher-dimensional Fourier transforms 62(4)
4.3.1 Hankel (Fourier-Bessel) transforms 62(1)
Exercises 63(3)
5 Detection systems 66(21)
5.1 Interaction of radiation and matter 66(1)
5.2 Photoelectric effect 66(1)
5.3 Compton scattering 67(2)
5.4 Pair production 69(1)
5.5 Electromagnetic wave interactions 70(1)
5.6 Optical and ultraviolet detectors 70(8)
5.6.1 Photomultipliers 70(2)
5.6.2 Other electron multiplication devices 72(2)
5.6.3 Solid state detectors 74(4)
5.7 Infrared astronomy 78(9)
5.7.1 Infrared photoconductors 80(2)
5.7.2 NICMOS 82(1)
5.7.3 Bolometers 83(1)
5.7.4 Spitzer 84(1)
5.7.5 Herschel 85(1)
5.7.6 WFIRST 85(1)
Exercises 86(1)
6 Orthodox statistics 87(18)
6.1 Probability distributions 87(5)
6.1.1 Binomial distribution 88(1)
6.1.2 Poisson distribution 89(2)
6.1.3 Gaussian (normal) distribution 91(1)
6.2 Moments of a probability distribution 92(1)
6.3 Characteristic (moment-generating) function 92(2)
6.4 Central limit theorem 94(1)
6.5 Experimental data 95(2)
6.6 Chi-squared (χ2) distribution 97(2)
6.7 Student's t-distribution 99(1)
6.8 Robust estimation 100(2)
6.9 Propagation of errors 102(3)
Exercises 104(1)
7 Stochastic processes and noise 105(12)
7.1 Stochastic process 105(1)
7.1.1 Stationary process 106(1)
7.2 Spectral density of a Poisson random process 106(2)
7.3 Spectral density of a Gaussian random process 108(1)
7.4 The transformation y = x2 109(1)
7.5 Filtering 110(2)
7.5.1 Low pass filtering 110(2)
7.6 Estimation in the presence of Gaussian noise 112(1)
7.7 Photon noise 112(1)
7.8 Thermal noise 113(4)
Exercises 115(2)
8 Optics 117(41)
8.1 Geometrical optics 117(17)
8.1.1 Paraxial optics (a first order theory) 119(5)
8.1.2 Seidel aberrations (a third order theory) 124(5)
8.1.3 Higher order terms 129(1)
8.1.4 Telescope design 130(2)
8.1.5 Other aspects of telescope design 132(1)
8.1.6 Gravitational lensing 133(1)
8.2 Dispersion 134(4)
8.2.1 Origin of the refractive Index 134(1)
8.2.2 Fresnel coefficients 135(3)
8.3 Physical optics 138(12)
8.3.1 Vector and scalar diffraction 139(1)
8.3.2 Kirchhoff diffraction theory 139(4)
8.3.3 Fresnel and Fraunhofer approximations 143(6)
8.3.4 Diffraction with aberrations 149(1)
8.4 Imaging 150(3)
8.5 Addendum 153(5)
Exercises 155(3)
9 Interference 158(15)
9.1 Mutual coherence function and complex degree of coherence 158(1)
9.2 Quasi-monochromatic radiation 158(2)
9.3 Young's two-slit experiment 160(2)
9.4 Michelson interferometer 162(1)
9.5 Michelson stellar interferometer 163(1)
9.6 Van Cittert-Zernike theorem 164(2)
9.7 Etendue of coherence 166(2)
9.7.1 One approach 166(1)
9.7.2 An alternate approach 167(1)
9.8 Aperture synthesis 168(2)
9.8.1 Arrays of antennas 168(2)
9.9 Caveat 170(1)
9.10 Fourth order coherence 170(3)
9.10.1 Intensity interferometry 171(1)
Exercises 172(1)
10 Spectroscopy 173(17)
10.1 Multiple beam interference 173(5)
10.1.1 Airy function 174(1)
10.1.2 Anti-reflection coating 175(1)
10.1.3 Enhanced reflection coating 176(1)
10.1.4 Interference filters 177(1)
10.2 Fabry-Perot interferometer (etalon) 178(2)
10.3 Fourier transform spectrometer 180(1)
10.4 Prism spectrograph 181(2)
10.4.1 Prism applications 182(1)
10.5 Diffraction gratings 183(7)
10.5.1 Grating properties 184(1)
10.5.2 Grating profiles 185(1)
10.5.3 Czerny-Turner spectrograph 185(1)
10.5.4 Echelle spectrograph 186(1)
10.5.5 Grism spectroscopy 187(1)
10.5.6 Fiber optic spectroscopy 187(1)
Exercises 188(2)
11 Ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray astronomy 190(19)
11.1 Telescopes and imaging 190(4)
11.1.1 X-ray telescopes 190(2)
11.1.2 Collimators 192(1)
11.1.3 Tracking designs 192(1)
11.1.4 Coded apertures 192(2)
11.2 Detectors 194(2)
11.2.1 Proportional counters 194(1)
11.2.2 Solid state detectors 195(1)
11.2.3 Scintillators 195(1)
11.2.4 Spark chambers 196(1)
11.3 Recent missions 196(11)
11.3.1 ROSAT 196(1)
11.3.2 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 197(2)
11.3.3 Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 199(1)
11.3.4 ASCA 200(1)
11.3.5 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer 200(1)
11.3.6 BeppoSAX 201(1)
11.3.7 FUSE 202(1)
11.3.8 Chandra 202(1)
11.3.9 XMM-Newton 203(2)
11.3.10 Integral 205(1)
11.3.11 Galex 206(1)
11.3.12 Swift 206(1)
11.3.13 Fermi gamma ray space telescope 207(1)
11.4 Possible future missions 207(2)
11.4.1 IXO 207(1)
11.4.2 MAXIM or BHI 207(1)
Exercises 208(1)
12 Radio receivers, spectrometers, and interferometers 209(24)
12.1 Astrophysical radio sources 209(1)
12.2 Fundamentals of radio receivers 209(9)
12.2.1 Linear systems 210(1)
12.2.2 Quantum noise limit 211(1)
12.2.3 Components in series 211(1)
12.2.4 Low noise GaAs FET amplifiers 212(2)
12.2.5 Radio frequency mixers 214(3)
12.2.6 Detectors and the radiometer equation 217(1)
12.3 Precision radiometry of the CMB 218(3)
12.3.1 COBE 218(1)
12.3.2 WMAP 218(2)
12.3.3 Planck 220(1)
12.3.4 Atacama Cosmology Telescope 220(1)
12.4 Radio spectrometers 221(2)
12.4.1 Autocorrelation spectrometers 221(1)
12.4.2 Filter banks 222(1)
12.4.3 Acousto-optical spectrometers 222(1)
12.5 Radio antennas 223(3)
12.5.1 Antenna patterns 223(2)
12.5.2 Antenna temperature 225(1)
12.5.3 Special antenna designs 226(1)
12.6 Radio interferometry 226(7)
12.6.1 Basic two-element interferometer 226(2)
12.6.2 Interferometer arrays 228(1)
12.6.3 Correlators 229(1)
12.6.4 Fourier inversion 230(3)
13 Modern statistical methods 233(24)
13.1 Bayes' theorem 233(2)
13.2 Maximum likelihood 235(1)
13.3 So what is Bayesian inference? 236(3)
13.3.1 Example 1 236(1)
13.3.2 Example 2 237(2)
13.4 Maximum entropy 239(2)
13.5 Uninformative priors 241(1)
13.5.1 Location priors 241(1)
13.5.2 Scale priors 241(1)
13.5.3 Positive, additive distributions 241(1)
13.6 Inverse problems 242(1)
13.7 Sampling the posterior 243(4)
13.7.1 Rejection sampling 244(1)
13.7.2 Metropolis-Hastings algorithm 245(1)
13.7.3 Gibbs sampling 246(1)
13.7.4 Mixing behavior 247(1)
13.8 Model comparison 247(3)
13.9 Malmquist (truncation) bias 250(1)
13.10 Censoring 251(2)
13.11 Confidence limits 253(4)
Exercises 255(2)
14 Neutrino detectors 257(28)
14.1 Neutrinos 257(1)
14.2 Solar neutrino production 258(2)
14.3 Supernova production 260(1)
14.4 Atmospheric neutrinos 260(2)
14.5 Neutrino oscillations 262(3)
14.5.1 Vacuum oscillations 262(2)
14.5.2 Matter oscillations 264(1)
14.5.3 Conclusions 264(1)
14.6 Radiochemical (transmutational) detectors 265(4)
14.6.1 Chlorine 265(2)
14.6.2 Gallium 267(1)
14.6.3 Other targets 268(1)
14.7 Cerenkov detectors 269(13)
14.7.1 Kamiokande and Super-Kamiokande 271(5)
14.7.2 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory 276(3)
14.7.3 IceCube 279(3)
14.8 Scintillation detectors: Borexino 282(1)
14.9 Cosmological implications 283(1)
14.10 Background of supernova neutrinos 283(2)
Exercises 284(1)
15 Cosmic ray detectors 285(29)
15.1 Properties of cosmic rays 285(2)
15.2 Intervening regions 287(8)
15.2.1 Magnetic fields 287(2)
15.2.2 Spallation reactions 289(1)
15.2.3 Interstellar ionization losses 290(1)
15.2.4 Bremsstrahlung 290(2)
15.2.5 Synchrotron losses 292(1)
15.2.6 Inverse Compton losses 293(1)
15.2.7 Pair production 294(1)
15.2.8 GZK effect 294(1)
15.2.9 Decays 295(1)
15.2.10 Atmospheric interactions 295(1)
15.3 Detectors 295(6)
15.3.1 Ionization detectors 296(1)
15.3.2 Bremsstrahlung 297(3)
15.3.3 Cerenkov radiation 300(1)
15.3.4 Transition radiation 300(1)
15.4 Balloon-borne and spacecraft missions 301(2)
15.4.1 1990s and early 2000s 301(1)
15.4.2 Tracer and Cream 301(2)
15.4.3 Pamela 303(1)
15.4.4 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 303(1)
15.5 Extensive air showers 303(9)
15.5.1 High Resolution Fly's Eye 307(2)
15.5.2 Pierre Auger Observatory 309(1)
15.5.3 Telescope Array (TA) project 310(1)
15.5.4 Atmospheric Cerenkov Telescope Array 311(1)
15.5.5 JEM-EUSO 311(1)
15.6 Particle acceleration 312(2)
Exercises 313(1)
16 Gravitational waves 314(26)
16.1 Characteristics of gravitational radiation 314(2)
16.2 Sources of gravitational waves 316(4)
16.3 Ground-based interferometric detectors 320(13)
16.3.1 Fabry-Perot 323(2)
16.3.2 Recycling interferometers 325(1)
16.3.3 Lasers 325(1)
16.3.4 Seismic noise 326(2)
16.3.5 Quantum limit, shot noise, and radiation pressure fluctuations 328(2)
16.3.6 Thermal noise 330(1)
16.3.7 Other factors 330(1)
16.3.8 Performance 331(1)
16.3.9 Squeezed states 332(1)
16.4 Space-based interferometric detectors 333(3)
16.5 Other systems 336(1)
16.6 Data analysis 336(4)
Exercises 337(3)
17 Polarimetry 340(15)
17.1 Sources of polarized radiation 340(5)
17.1.1 Synchrotron radiation 340(1)
17.1.2 Zeeman effect 340(3)
17.1.3 Thermal emission 343(1)
17.1.4 Scattering 343(1)
17.1.5 Primordial polarization 344(1)
17.2 Propagation effects 345(1)
17.3 Polarization-sensitive devices 345(1)
17.4 Analysis of polarization states 346(4)
17.4.1 Stokes parameters 346(2)
17.4.2 Mueller matrices 348(1)
17.4.3 Jones vectors and matrices 349(1)
17.5 Polarization measurement 350(1)
17.5.1 Analysis of weak field splittings 351(1)
17.6 Optical polarimetry 351(1)
17.7 Radio polarimetry and calibration 352(3)
Exercises 353(2)
Appendix A Physical constants and units 355(1)
Appendix B Acronyms 356(7)
Appendix C Additional reading 363(6)
References 369(9)
Index 378
List of illustrations xiv
List of tables xx
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
1 Astrophysical information 1(13)
1.1 Electromagnetic radiation 1(1)
1.2 Other carriers of information 2(1)
1.3 Intervening regions 3(11)
1.3.1 Intergalactic/interstellar medium 3(2)
1.3.2 Interplanetary medium 5(1)
1.3.3 Earth's atmosphere 5(7)
Exercises 12(2)
2 Photometry 14(14)
2.1 Specific intensity (brightness) 14(1)
2.2 Etendue 14(2)
2.3 Moments of the specific intensity 16(1)
2.4 Energy density 17(1)
2.5 Flux from a surface of uniform brightness 17(1)
2.6 Blackbody radiation 18(2)
2.7 Atmospheric extinction (calibration) 20(2)
2.8 Absolute calibration 22(1)
2.9 Photometric magnitudes 23(5)
Exercises 25(3)
3 Positional astronomy 28(24)
3.1 Fundamental reference system 28(1)
3.2 Time systems 28(4)
3.2.1 Atomic time 28(2)
3.2.2 Astronomical time scales 30(1)
3.2.3 Sidereal time 31(1)
3.2.4 Solar time 31(1)
3.3 Spherical astronomy 32(7)
3.3.1 Spherical coordinates (in general) 32(1)
3.3.2 Latitude and longitude 33(1)
3.3.3 Equatorial coordinates 33(1)
3.3.4 Horizon coordinate system (alt/az) 34(1)
3.3.5 Conversion formulae (alt/az ↔ ha/dec) 35(1)
3.3.6 Ecliptic coordinates 35(1)
3.3.7 Galactic coordinates 36(1)
3.3.8 Spherical trigonometry 37(1)
3.3.9 Rotation matrices 37(2)
3.4 Epoch 39(1)
3.5 Changes in equatorial coordinates 40(6)
3.5.1 Proper motion 40(1)
3.5.2 Precession 41(1)
3.5.3 Nutation 41(1)
3.5.4 Parallax 42(1)
3.5.5 Aberration of starlight 42(1)
3.5.6 Reduction of celestial coordinates (overview) 43(1)
3.5.7 Gravitational deflection of light 44(1)
3.5.8 Refraction 45(1)
3.5.9 Parallactic angle 46(1)
3.6 Astrometry 46(6)
3.6.1 Historical techniques 46(2)
3.6.2 Hipparcos 48(1)
Exercises 49(3)
4 Fourier transforms 52(14)
4.1 Fourier series 52(2)
4.2 Fourier integrals 54(8)
4.2.1 Relationship to the Dirac delta (impulse) function 55(1)
4.2.2 Parseval's theorem (Rayleigh's theorem) 56(1)
4.2.3 Properties of Fourier transforms 57(1)
4.2.4 Convolution 58(1)
4.2.5 Autocorrelation (Wiener-Khinchin theorem) 58(1)
4.2.6 Common functions and Fourier transform pairs 59(1)
4.2.7 Aliasing and Shannon's sampling theorem 60(2)
4.3 Higher-dimensional Fourier transforms 62(4)
4.3.1 Hankel (Fourier-Bessel) transforms 62(1)
Exercises 63(3)
5 Detection systems 66(21)
5.1 Interaction of radiation and matter 66(1)
5.2 Photoelectric effect 66(1)
5.3 Compton scattering 67(2)
5.4 Pair production 69(1)
5.5 Electromagnetic wave interactions 70(1)
5.6 Optical and ultraviolet detectors 70(8)
5.6.1 Photomultipliers 70(2)
5.6.2 Other electron multiplication devices 72(2)
5.6.3 Solid state detectors 74(4)
5.7 Infrared astronomy 78(9)
5.7.1 Infrared photoconductors 80(2)
5.7.2 NICMOS 82(1)
5.7.3 Bolometers 83(1)
5.7.4 Spitzer 84(1)
5.7.5 Herschel 85(1)
5.7.6 WFIRST 85(1)
Exercises 86(1)
6 Orthodox statistics 87(18)
6.1 Probability distributions 87(5)
6.1.1 Binomial distribution 88(1)
6.1.2 Poisson distribution 89(2)
6.1.3 Gaussian (normal) distribution 91(1)
6.2 Moments of a probability distribution 92(1)
6.3 Characteristic (moment-generating) function 92(2)
6.4 Central limit theorem 94(1)
6.5 Experimental data 95(2)
6.6 Chi-squared (χ2) distribution 97(2)
6.7 Student's t-distribution 99(1)
6.8 Robust estimation 100(2)
6.9 Propagation of errors 102(3)
Exercises 104(1)
7 Stochastic processes and noise 105(12)
7.1 Stochastic process 105(1)
7.1.1 Stationary process 106(1)
7.2 Spectral density of a Poisson random process 106(2)
7.3 Spectral density of a Gaussian random process 108(1)
7.4 The transformation y = x2 109(1)
7.5 Filtering 110(2)
7.5.1 Low pass filtering 110(2)
7.6 Estimation in the presence of Gaussian noise 112(1)
7.7 Photon noise 112(1)
7.8 Thermal noise 113(4)
Exercises 115(2)
8 Optics 117(41)
8.1 Geometrical optics 117(17)
8.1.1 Paraxial optics (a first order theory) 119(5)
8.1.2 Seidel aberrations (a third order theory) 124(5)
8.1.3 Higher order terms 129(1)
8.1.4 Telescope design 130(2)
8.1.5 Other aspects of telescope design 132(1)
8.1.6 Gravitational lensing 133(1)
8.2 Dispersion 134(4)
8.2.1 Origin of the refractive Index 134(1)
8.2.2 Fresnel coefficients 135(3)
8.3 Physical optics 138(12)
8.3.1 Vector and scalar diffraction 139(1)
8.3.2 Kirchhoff diffraction theory 139(4)
8.3.3 Fresnel and Fraunhofer approximations 143(6)
8.3.4 Diffraction with aberrations 149(1)
8.4 Imaging 150(3)
8.5 Addendum 153(5)
Exercises 155(3)
9 Interference 158(15)
9.1 Mutual coherence function and complex degree of coherence 158(1)
9.2 Quasi-monochromatic radiation 158(2)
9.3 Young's two-slit experiment 160(2)
9.4 Michelson interferometer 162(1)
9.5 Michelson stellar interferometer 163(1)
9.6 Van Cittert-Zernike theorem 164(2)
9.7 Etendue of coherence 166(2)
9.7.1 One approach 166(1)
9.7.2 An alternate approach 167(1)
9.8 Aperture synthesis 168(2)
9.8.1 Arrays of antennas 168(2)
9.9 Caveat 170(1)
9.10 Fourth order coherence 170(3)
9.10.1 Intensity interferometry 171(1)
Exercises 172(1)
10 Spectroscopy 173(17)
10.1 Multiple beam interference 173(5)
10.1.1 Airy function 174(1)
10.1.2 Anti-reflection coating 175(1)
10.1.3 Enhanced reflection coating 176(1)
10.1.4 Interference filters 177(1)
10.2 Fabry-Perot interferometer (etalon) 178(2)
10.3 Fourier transform spectrometer 180(1)
10.4 Prism spectrograph 181(2)
10.4.1 Prism applications 182(1)
10.5 Diffraction gratings 183(7)
10.5.1 Grating properties 184(1)
10.5.2 Grating profiles 185(1)
10.5.3 Czerny-Turner spectrograph 185(1)
10.5.4 Echelle spectrograph 186(1)
10.5.5 Grism spectroscopy 187(1)
10.5.6 Fiber optic spectroscopy 187(1)
Exercises 188(2)
11 Ultraviolet, x-ray, and gamma ray astronomy 190(19)
11.1 Telescopes and imaging 190(4)
11.1.1 X-ray telescopes 190(2)
11.1.2 Collimators 192(1)
11.1.3 Tracking designs 192(1)
11.1.4 Coded apertures 192(2)
11.2 Detectors 194(2)
11.2.1 Proportional counters 194(1)
11.2.2 Solid state detectors 195(1)
11.2.3 Scintillators 195(1)
11.2.4 Spark chambers 196(1)
11.3 Recent missions 196(11)
11.3.1 ROSAT 196(1)
11.3.2 Compton Gamma Ray Observatory 197(2)
11.3.3 Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer 199(1)
11.3.4 ASCA 200(1)
11.3.5 Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer 200(1)
11.3.6 BeppoSAX 201(1)
11.3.7 FUSE 202(1)
11.3.8 Chandra 202(1)
11.3.9 XMM-Newton 203(2)
11.3.10 Integral 205(1)
11.3.11 Galex 206(1)
11.3.12 Swift 206(1)
11.3.13 Fermi gamma ray space telescope 207(1)
11.4 Possible future missions 207(2)
11.4.1 IXO 207(1)
11.4.2 MAXIM or BHI 207(1)
Exercises 208(1)
12 Radio receivers, spectrometers, and interferometers 209(24)
12.1 Astrophysical radio sources 209(1)
12.2 Fundamentals of radio receivers 209(9)
12.2.1 Linear systems 210(1)
12.2.2 Quantum noise limit 211(1)
12.2.3 Components in series 211(1)
12.2.4 Low noise GaAs FET amplifiers 212(2)
12.2.5 Radio frequency mixers 214(3)
12.2.6 Detectors and the radiometer equation 217(1)
12.3 Precision radiometry of the CMB 218(3)
12.3.1 COBE 218(1)
12.3.2 WMAP 218(2)
12.3.3 Planck 220(1)
12.3.4 Atacama Cosmology Telescope 220(1)
12.4 Radio spectrometers 221(2)
12.4.1 Autocorrelation spectrometers 221(1)
12.4.2 Filter banks 222(1)
12.4.3 Acousto-optical spectrometers 222(1)
12.5 Radio antennas 223(3)
12.5.1 Antenna patterns 223(2)
12.5.2 Antenna temperature 225(1)
12.5.3 Special antenna designs 226(1)
12.6 Radio interferometry 226(7)
12.6.1 Basic two-element interferometer 226(2)
12.6.2 Interferometer arrays 228(1)
12.6.3 Correlators 229(1)
12.6.4 Fourier inversion 230(3)
13 Modern statistical methods 233(24)
13.1 Bayes' theorem 233(2)
13.2 Maximum likelihood 235(1)
13.3 So what is Bayesian inference? 236(3)
13.3.1 Example 1 236(1)
13.3.2 Example 2 237(2)
13.4 Maximum entropy 239(2)
13.5 Uninformative priors 241(1)
13.5.1 Location priors 241(1)
13.5.2 Scale priors 241(1)
13.5.3 Positive, additive distributions 241(1)
13.6 Inverse problems 242(1)
13.7 Sampling the posterior 243(4)
13.7.1 Rejection sampling 244(1)
13.7.2 Metropolis-Hastings algorithm 245(1)
13.7.3 Gibbs sampling 246(1)
13.7.4 Mixing behavior 247(1)
13.8 Model comparison 247(3)
13.9 Malmquist (truncation) bias 250(1)
13.10 Censoring 251(2)
13.11 Confidence limits 253(4)
Exercises 255(2)
14 Neutrino detectors 257(28)
14.1 Neutrinos 257(1)
14.2 Solar neutrino production 258(2)
14.3 Supernova production 260(1)
14.4 Atmospheric neutrinos 260(2)
14.5 Neutrino oscillations 262(3)
14.5.1 Vacuum oscillations 262(2)
14.5.2 Matter oscillations 264(1)
14.5.3 Conclusions 264(1)
14.6 Radiochemical (transmutational) detectors 265(4)
14.6.1 Chlorine 265(2)
14.6.2 Gallium 267(1)
14.6.3 Other targets 268(1)
14.7 Cerenkov detectors 269(13)
14.7.1 Kamiokande and Super-Kamiokande 271(5)
14.7.2 Sudbury Neutrino Observatory 276(3)
14.7.3 IceCube 279(3)
14.8 Scintillation detectors: Borexino 282(1)
14.9 Cosmological implications 283(1)
14.10 Background of supernova neutrinos 283(2)
Exercises 284(1)
15 Cosmic ray detectors 285(29)
15.1 Properties of cosmic rays 285(2)
15.2 Intervening regions 287(8)
15.2.1 Magnetic fields 287(2)
15.2.2 Spallation reactions 289(1)
15.2.3 Interstellar ionization losses 290(1)
15.2.4 Bremsstrahlung 290(2)
15.2.5 Synchrotron losses 292(1)
15.2.6 Inverse Compton losses 293(1)
15.2.7 Pair production 294(1)
15.2.8 GZK effect 294(1)
15.2.9 Decays 295(1)
15.2.10 Atmospheric interactions 295(1)
15.3 Detectors 295(6)
15.3.1 Ionization detectors 296(1)
15.3.2 Bremsstrahlung 297(3)
15.3.3 Cerenkov radiation 300(1)
15.3.4 Transition radiation 300(1)
15.4 Balloon-borne and spacecraft missions 301(2)
15.4.1 1990s and early 2000s 301(1)
15.4.2 Tracer and Cream 301(2)
15.4.3 Pamela 303(1)
15.4.4 Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 303(1)
15.5 Extensive air showers 303(9)
15.5.1 High Resolution Fly's Eye 307(2)
15.5.2 Pierre Auger Observatory 309(1)
15.5.3 Telescope Array (TA) project 310(1)
15.5.4 Atmospheric Cerenkov Telescope Array 311(1)
15.5.5 JEM-EUSO 311(1)
15.6 Particle acceleration 312(2)
Exercises 313(1)
16 Gravitational waves 314(26)
16.1 Characteristics of gravitational radiation 314(2)
16.2 Sources of gravitational waves 316(4)
16.3 Ground-based interferometric detectors 320(13)
16.3.1 Fabry-Perot 323(2)
16.3.2 Recycling interferometers 325(1)
16.3.3 Lasers 325(1)
16.3.4 Seismic noise 326(2)
16.3.5 Quantum limit, shot noise, and radiation pressure fluctuations 328(2)
16.3.6 Thermal noise 330(1)
16.3.7 Other factors 330(1)
16.3.8 Performance 331(1)
16.3.9 Squeezed states 332(1)
16.4 Space-based interferometric detectors 333(3)
16.5 Other systems 336(1)
16.6 Data analysis 336(4)
Exercises 337(3)
17 Polarimetry 340(15)
17.1 Sources of polarized radiation 340(5)
17.1.1 Synchrotron radiation 340(1)
17.1.2 Zeeman effect 340(3)
17.1.3 Thermal emission 343(1)
17.1.4 Scattering 343(1)
17.1.5 Primordial polarization 344(1)
17.2 Propagation effects 345(1)
17.3 Polarization-sensitive devices 345(1)
17.4 Analysis of polarization states 346(4)
17.4.1 Stokes parameters 346(2)
17.4.2 Mueller matrices 348(1)
17.4.3 Jones vectors and matrices 349(1)
17.5 Polarization measurement 350(1)
17.5.1 Analysis of weak field splittings 351(1)
17.6 Optical polarimetry 351(1)
17.7 Radio polarimetry and calibration 352(3)
Exercises 353(2)
Appendix A Physical constants and units 355(1)
Appendix B Acronyms 356(7)
Appendix C Additional reading 363(6)
References 369(9)
Index 378
- 名称
- 类型
- 大小
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