Geographical information systems and science / 2nd ed.

Contents 7
Foreword 11
Addendum 12
Preface 13
List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 17
I Introduction 21
1 Systems, science, and study 23
1.1 Introduction: why does GIS matter? 24
1.2 Data, information, evidence, knowledge, wisdom 31
1.3 The science of problem solving 33
1.4 The technology of problem solving 36
1.5 The business of GIS 44
1.6 GISystems, GIScience, and GIStudies 48
1.7 GIS and geography 51
Questions for further study 53
Further reading 53
2 A gallery of applications 55
2.1 Introduction 56
2.2 Science, geography, and applications 59
2.3 Representative application areas and their foundations 61
2.4 Concluding comments 80
Questions for further study 80
Further reading 80
II Principles 81
3 Representing geography 83
3.1 Introduction 84
3.2 Digital representation 85
3.3 Representation for what and for whom? 87
3.4 The fundamental problem 88
3.5 Discrete objects and continuous fields 90
3.6 Rasters and vectors 94
3.7 The paper map 96
3.8 Generalization 100
3.9 Conclusion 102
Questions for further study 103
Further reading 103
4 The nature of geographic data 105
4.1 Introduction 106
4.2 The fundamental problem revisited 106
4.3 Spatial autocorrelation and scale 107
4.4 Spatial sampling 110
4.5 Distance decay 113
4.6 Measuring distance effects as spatial autocorrelation 115
4.7 Establishing dependence in space 121
4.8 Taming geographic monsters 124
4.9 Induction and deduction and how it all comes together 126
Questions for further study 127
Further reading 127
5 Georeferencing 129
5.1 Introduction 130
5.2 Placenames 132
5.3 Postal addresses and postal codes 133
5.4 Linear referencing systems 134
5.5 Cadasters and the US Public Land Survey System 134
5.6 Measuring the Earth: latitude and longitude 135
5.7 Projections and coordinates 137
5.8 Measuring latitude, longitude, and elevation: GPS 142
5.9 Converting georeferences 143
5.10 Summary 145
Questions for further study 146
Further reading 146
6 Uncertainty 147
6.1 Introduction 148
6.2 U1: Uncertainty in the conception of geographic phenomena 149
6.3 U2: Further uncertainty in the measurement and representation of geographic phenomena 156
6.4 U3: Further uncertainty in the analysis of geographic phenomena 164
6.5 Consolidation 172
Questions for further study 173
Further reading 173
III Techniques 175
7 GIS Software 177
7.1 Introduction 178
7.2 The evolution of GIS software 178
7.3 Architecture of GIS software 179
7.4 Building GIS software systems 185
7.5 GIS software vendors 185
7.6 Types of GIS software systems 187
7.7 GIS software usage 194
7.8 Conclusion 194
Questions for further study 194
Further reading 195
8 Geographic data modeling 197
8.1 Introduction 198
8.2 GIS data models 199
8.3 Example of a water-facility object data model 212
8.4 Geographic data modeling in practice 215
Questions for further study 216
Further reading 217
9 GIS data collection 219
9.1 Introduction 220
9.2 Primary geographic data capture 221
9.3 Secondary geographic data capture 225
9.4 Obtaining data from external sources (data transfer) 231
9.5 Capturing attribute data 235
9.6 Managing a data collection project 235
Questions for further study 236
Further reading 236
10 Creating and maintaining geographic databases 237
10.1 Introduction 238
10.2 Database management systems 238
10.3 Storing data in DBMS tables 242
10.4 SQL 245
10.5 Geographic database types and functions 246
10.6 Geographic database design 247
10.7 Structuring geographic information 249
10.8 Editing and data maintenance 255
10.9 Multi-user editing of continuous databases 255
10.10 Conclusion 257
Questions for further study 258
Further reading 259
11 Distributed GIS 261
11.1 Introduction 262
11.2 Distributing the data 264
11.3 The mobile user 270
11.4 Distributing the software: GIServices 277
11.5 Prospects 279
Questions for further study 279
Further reading 279
IV Analysis 281
12 Cartography and map production 283
12.1 Introduction 284
12.2 Maps and cartography 287
12.3 Principles of map design 290
12.4 Map series 301
12.5 Applications 304
12.6 Conclusions 307
Questions for further study 307
Further reading 307
13 Geovisualization 309
13.1 Introduction: uses, users, messages, and media 310
13.2 Geovisualization and spatial query 313
13.3 Geovisualization and transformation 317
13.4 Immersive interaction and PPGIS 322
13.5 Consolidation 329
Questions for further study 332
Further reading 333
14 Query, measurement, and transformation 335
14.1 Introduction: what is spatial analysis? 336
14.2 Queries 340
14.3 Measurements 343
14.4 Transformations 349
14.5 Conclusion 359
Questions for further study 359
Further reading 359
15 Descriptive summary, design, and inference 361
15.1 More spatial analysis 362
15.2 Descriptive summaries 363
15.3 Optimization 372
15.4 Hypothesis testing 379
15.5 Conclusion 381
Questions for further study 382
Further reading 382
16 Spatial modeling with GIS 383
16.1 Introduction 384
16.2 Types of model 389
16.3 Technology for modeling 396
16.4 Multicriteria methods 398
16.5 Accuracy and validity: testing the model 399
16.6 Conclusion 401
Questions for further study 401
Further reading 402
V Management and Policy 403
17 Managing GIS 405
17.1 The big picture 406
17.2 The process of developing a sustainable GIS 410
17.3 Sustaining a GIS \u2013 the people and their competences 419
17.4 Conclusions 421
Questions for further study 422
Further reading 423
18 GIS and management, the Knowledge Economy, and information 425
18.1 Are we all in \u2018managed businesses\u2019 now? 426
18.2 Management is central to the successful use of GIS 428
18.3 The Knowledge Economy, knowledge management, and GIS 433
18.4 Information, the currency of the Knowledge Economy 435
18.5 GIS as a business and as a business stimulant 442
18.6 Discussion 444
Questions for further study 444
Further reading 444
19 Exploiting GIS assets and navigating constraints 445
19.1 GIS and the law 446
19.2 GIS people and their skills 451
19.3 Availability of \u2018core\u2019 geographic information 454
19.4 Navigating the constraints 460
19.5 Conclusions 464
Questions for further study 465
Further reading 465
20 GIS partnerships 467
20.1 Introduction 468
20.2 Collaborations at the local level 468
20.3 Working together at the national level 470
20.4 Multi-national collaborations 478
20.5 Nationalism, globalization, politics, and GIS 479
20.6 Extreme events can change everything 484
20.7 Conclusions 490
Questions for further study 490
Further reading 490
21 Epilog 491
21.1 Introduction 492
21.2 A consolidation of some recurring themes 492
21.3 Ten \u2018grand challenges\u2019 for GIS 498
21.4 Conclusions 505
Questions for further study 506
Further reading 506
Index 507