Preface p. xxiii
Introduction to Natural Hazards p. 2
Case History: Nevado del Ruiz: A Story of People, Land Use, and Volcanic Eruption p. 2
Why Studying Natural Hazards Is Important p. 5
Processes: Internal and External p. 5
Hazard, Disaster, or Catastrophe p. 6
Death and Damage Caused by Natural Hazards p. 8
Role of History in Understanding Hazards p. 9
Geologic Cycle p. 9
The Tectonic Cycle p. 9
The Rock Cycle p. 13
The Hydrologic Cycle p. 14
Biogeochemical Cycles p. 14
Fundamental Concepts for Understanding Natural Processes as Hazards p. 15
Hazards are predictable from scientific evaluation p. 16
Science and Natural Hazards p. 16
Hazards Are Natural Processes p. 16
Prediction and Warning p. 18
Risk assessment is an important component of our understanding of the effects of hazardous processes p. 19
Linkages exist between natural hazards and between hazards and the physical environment p. 20
Hazardous events that previously produced disasters are now producing catastrophes p. 20
Examples of Disasters in Densely Populated Areas p. 20
Human Population Growth p. 21
Magnitude and Frequency of Hazardous Events p. 21
Case Study: Human Population through History p. 22
Case Study: The Magnitude-Frequency Concept p. 23
Consequences of hazards can be minimized p. 24
Reactive Response: Impact of and Recovery from Disasters p. 24
Anticipatory Response: Avoiding and Adjusting to Hazards p. 25
Many Hazards Provide a Natural Service Function p. 26
Global Climate Change and Hazards p. 27
Summary p. 28
Key Terms p. 28
Review Questions p. 28
Critical Thinking Questions p. 29
Selected Web Resources p. 29
Earthquakes p. 30
Case History: Earthquakes of Early 2001-Lessons Learned p. 30
Introduction to Earthquakes p. 33
Earthquake Magnitude p. 33
Earthquake Intensity p. 35
Earthquake Processes p. 36
Process of Faulting p. 36
Fault Activity p. 38
Tectonic Creep p. 38
Seismic Waves p. 41
Earthquake Shaking p. 42
Distance to the Epicenter p. 42
Depth of Focus p. 44
Direction of the Epicenter p. 44
Local Geologic Conditions p. 44
The Earthquake Cycle p. 48
Geographic Regions at Risk from Earthquakes p. 49
Plate Boundary Earthquakes p. 50
Intraplate Earthquakes p. 50
Effects of Earthquakes and Linkages with Other Natural Hazards p. 52
Shaking and Ground Rupture p. 52
Liquefaction p. 53
Regional Changes in Land Elevation p. 53
Landslides p. 53
Fires p. 53
Disease p. 54
Natural Service Functions of Earthquakes p. 54
Groundwater and Energy Resources p. 54
Mineral Resources p. 54
Landform Development p. 55
Future Earthquake Hazard Reduction p. 55
Human Interaction with Earthquakes p. 55
Earthquakes Caused by Human Activity p. 55
Minimizing the Earthquake Hazard p. 56
The National Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program p. 56
Estimation of Seismic Risk p. 57
Short-Term Prediction p. 57
The Future of Earthquake Prediction p. 58
Earthquake Warning Systems p. 59
Survivor Story: Earthquakes in Canada p. 60
Perception of and Adjustment to the Earthquake Hazard p. 60
Perception of the Earthquake Hazard p. 60
Community Adjustments to the Earthquake Hazard p. 61
Professional Profile: Andrea Donnellan, Earthquake Forecaster p. 62
Personal Adjustments: Before, During, and After an Earthquake p. 63
Summary p. 64
Key Terms p. 65
Review Questions p. 66
Critical Thinking Questions p. 66
Selected Web Resources p. 67
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Earthquake Damage Assessment p. 67
Volcanoes p. 68
Case History: Mt. Unzen, 1991 p. 68
Introduction to Volcanoes p. 68
Volcano Types p. 71
Volcanic Features p. 74
Volcano Origins p. 76
Geographic Regions at Risk for Volcanoes p. 78
Effects of Volcanoes p. 79
Lava Flows p. 81
Pyroclastic Activity p. 81
Poisonous Gases p. 82
Debris Flows, Mudflows, and Other Mass Movements p. 84
Case Study: Volcanic Landslides and Tsunamis p. 85
Mount St. Helens 1980-2005: From Lateral Blasts to Lava Flows p. 86
Linkages between Volcanoes and Other Natural Hazards p. 90
Natural Service Functions of Volcanoes p. 91
Volcanic Soils p. 91
Geothermal Power p. 91
Recreation p. 92
Creation of New Land p. 92
Human Interaction with Volcanoes p. 92
Minimizing the Volcanic Hazard p. 92
Forecasting p. 92
Professional Profile Chris: Eisinger, Studying Active Volcanoes p. 94
Survivor Story: A Close Call with Mount St. Helens p. 96
Volcanic Alert or Warning p. 96
Perception of and Adjustment to the Volcanic Hazard p. 97
Perception of the Volcanic Hazard p. 97
Adjustments to Volcanic Hazards p. 97
Attempts to Control Lava Flows p. 98
Summary p. 99
Key Terms p. 100
Review Questions p. 100
Critical Thinking Questions p. 100
Selected Web Resources p. 100
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Volcanic Hazard Assessment p. 101
Flooding p. 102
Case History: Great Britain Floods of 2000 p. 102
An Introduction to Rivers p. 104
Earth Material Transported by Rivers p. 104
River Velocity, Discharge, Erosion, and Sediment Deposition p. 104
Channel Patterns and Floodplain Formation p. 107
Flooding p. 109
Case Study: Alluvial Fan Flooding on the Ventura River p. 110
Upstream and Downstream Floods p. 112
Case Study: Magnitude and Frequency of Floods p. 114
Survivor Story: Flash Flood p. 116
Geographic Regions at Risk for Flooding p. 118
Effects of Flooding and Linkages between Floods and Other Hazards p. 119
Natural Service Functions p. 120
Fertile Lands p. 120
Aquatic Ecosystems p. 120
Sediment Supply p. 120
Case Study: The Grand Canyon Flood of 1996 p. 121
Human Interaction with Flooding p. 122
Land Use Changes p. 122
Dam Construction p. 124
Urbanization and Flooding p. 124
Case Study: Flash Floods in Eastern Ohio p. 126
Minimizing the Flood Hazard p. 126
The Structural Approach p. 126
Channel Restoration: Alternative to Channelization p. 130
Perception of and Adjustment to the Flood Hazard p. 132
Perception of the Flood Hazard p. 132
Adjustments to the Flood Hazard p. 132
Professional Profile: Walter G. Green, III, Emergency Operations Director p. 134
Relocating People from Floodplains: Examples from North Carolina and North Dakota p. 135
Personal Adjustment: What to Do and What Not to Do p. 135
Summary p. 137
Key Terms p. 137
Review Questions p. 138
Critical Thinking Questions p. 138
Selected Web Resources p. 138
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Flood Insurance Rate Maps p. 139
Mass Wasting p. 140
Case History: Portuguese Bend, California p. 140
An Introduction to Landslides p. 143
Slope Processes p. 143
Types of Landslides p. 145
Forces on Slopes p. 146
Snow Avalanches p. 152
Geographic Regions at Risk from Landslides p. 153
Effects of Landslides and Linkages with Other Natural Hazards p. 153
Effects of Landslides p. 153
Case Study: La Conchita: Southern California Landslide Disaster of 2005-Lessons Learned p. 154
Linkages between Landslides and Other Natural Hazards p. 157
Survivor Story: Landslide p. 158
Natural Service Functions of Landslides p. 159
Human Interaction with Landslides p. 159
Timber Harvesting and Landslides p. 159
Urbanization and Landslides p. 159
Professional Profile: Bob Rasely, Mass Wasting Specialist p. 161
Minimizing the Landslide Hazard p. 162
Identification of Potential Landslides p. 162
Prevention of Landslides p. 162
Landslide Warning Systems p. 166
Perception of and Adjustment to the Landslide Hazard p. 167
Perception of the Landslide Hazard p. 167
Adjustments to the Landslide Hazard p. 167
Personal Adjustments: What You Can Do to Minimize Your Landslide Hazard p. 167
Summary p. 169
Key Terms p. 169
Review Questions p. 169
Critical Thinking Questions p. 170
Selected Web Resources p. 170
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Landslide Hazard Assessment p. 171
Subsidence p. 172
Case History: Venice Is Sinking p. 172
Introduction to Subsidence p. 172
Karst p. 174
Thermokarst p. 176
Survivor Story: Sinkholes p. 177
Sediment and Soil Compaction p. 178
Expansive Soils p. 179
Earthquakes p. 180
Deflation of Magma Chambers p. 181
Regions at Risk for Subsidence-Related Hazards p. 181
Effects of Subsidence p. 182
Sinkhole Collapse p. 182
Groundwater Conditions p. 182
Damage Caused by Melting Permafrost p. 184
Coastal Flooding and Loss of Wetlands p. 184
Damage Caused by Expansive Soils p. 184
Linkages between Subsidence and Other Natural Hazards p. 185
Natural Service Functions of Subsidence p. 185
Water Supply p. 185
Aesthetic and Scientific Resources p. 185
Unique Ecosystems p. 186
Human Interaction with Subsidence p. 186
Withdrawal of Fluids p. 186
Underground Mining p. 187
Melting Permafrost p. 188
Restricting Deltaic Sedimentation p. 189
Draining Organic Soils p. 189
Landscaping Expansive Soils p. 189
Professional Profile: Helen Delano, Environmental Geologist p. 190
Minimizing the Subsidence Hazard p. 190
Perception of and Adjustment to the Subsidence Hazard p. 192
Perception of the Subsidence Hazard p. 192
Adjustment to the Subsidence Hazard p. 192
Summary p. 193
Key Terms p. 193
Review Questions p. 194
Critical Thinking Questions p. 194
Selected Web Resources p. 194
Atmosphere and Severe Weather p. 196
Case History: Tri-State Tornado, March 18, 1925 p. 196
Energy p. 198
Types of Energy p. 199
Heat Transfer p. 199
Earth's Energy Balance p. 200
Electromagnetic Energy p. 200
Radiation, Absorption, and Temperature p. 201
The Atmosphere p. 202
Composition of the Atmosphere p. 202
Structure of the Atmosphere p. 202
Weather Processes p. 203
Atmospheric Pressure p. 203
Unstable Air p. 205
Coriolis Effect p. 205
Fronts p. 205
Hazardous Weather p. 207
Thunderstorms p. 207
Case Study: Lightning p. 210
Tornadoes p. 210
Survivor Story: Struck by Lightning p. 212
Blizzards and Ice Storms p. 216
Drought p. 217
Dust and Sand Storms p. 217
Heat Waves p. 218
Human Interaction with Weather p. 219
Natural Service Functions of Severe Weather p. 219
Professional Profile: Tornadoes p. 220
Minimizing Severe Weather Hazards p. 220
Forecasting and Prediction of Weather Hazards p. 220
Adjustment to the Severe Weather Hazard p. 221
Summary p. 222
Key Terms p. 222
Review Questions p. 222
Critical Thinking Questions p. 223
Selected Web Resources p. 223
Coastal Hazards p. 224
Case History: Hurricane Ivan p. 224
Introduction to Coastal Processes p. 226
Waves p. 226
Case Study: Rogue Waves p. 228
Beach Form and Processes p. 229
Tropical Cyclones p. 232
Tsunamis p. 235
Case Study: Indonesian Tsunami of 2004 p. 236
Survivor Story: Tsunami in the Lowest Country on Earth p. 240
Geographic Regions at Risk for Coastal Hazards p. 240
Effects of Coastal Processes p. 243
Rip Currents p. 243
Coastal Erosion p. 244
Hurricanes p. 246
Tsunamis p. 246
Linkages between Coastal Processes and Other Natural Hazards p. 247
Natural Service Functions of Coastal Processes p. 248
Human Interaction with Coastal Processes p. 249
The Atlantic Coast p. 249
The Gulf Coast p. 251
The Great Lakes p. 251
Canadian Seacoasts p. 252
Minimizing the Effects of Coastal Hazards p. 252
Coastal Erosion p. 252
Hurricanes p. 254
Professional Profile: The Hurricane Hunters p. 257
Tsunamis p. 258
Perception of and Adjustment to Coastal Hazards p. 259
Perception of Coastal Hazards p. 259
Case Study: E-Lines and E-Zones p. 260
Adjustment to Coastal Erosion p. 260
Adjustment to Hurricanes p. 261
Adjustments to Tsunamis p. 262
Summary p. 263
Key Terms p. 263
Review Questions p. 263
Critical Thinking Questions p. 264
Selected Web Resources p. 264
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Shoreline Property Assessment p. 265
Climate and Climate Change p. 266
Case History: California Threatened by Climate Change p. 266
Climate and Weather p. 268
Climate Zones p. 268
The Koeppen System and Natural Processes p. 269
The Atmosphere p. 269
Atmospheric Composition p. 269
Permanent Gases p. 269
Variable Gases p. 270
Structure of the Atmosphere p. 272
Atmospheric Circulation p. 272
Climate Change p. 272
Glaciations p. 272
The Greenhouse Effect p. 273
Global Temperature Change p. 275
Why Does Climate Change? p. 278
Hazards Associated with Climate Change p. 280
Climate Patterns p. 280
Sea Level Rise p. 280
Changes in the Biosphere p. 281
Desertification and Drought p. 281
Case Study: El Nino p. 282
Professional Profile: Moving the Cape Hatteras Lighthouse p. 284
Wildfires p. 284
Minimizing the Effects of Global Warming p. 284
Survivor Story: Residents of the Maldive Islands p. 286
International Agreements p. 287
Manipulation of Carbon Dioxide "Sinks" p. 288
Fossil Fuels and the Future Threat of Global Warming p. 288
Summary p. 289
Key Terms p. 289
Review Questions p. 289
Critical Thinking Questions p. 290
Selected Web Resources p. 290
Hazard City: Assignments in Applied Geology-Snowpack Monitoring p. 291
Wildfires p. 292
Case History: Wildfires in 2002-Colorado and Arizona p. 292
Introduction to Wildfire p. 294
Wildfire as a Process p. 294
Case Study: Indonesian Fires of 1997-1998 p. 295
Fire Environment p. 297
Effects of Wildfires and Linkages with Other Natural Hazards p. 300
Effects on the Geologic Environment p. 300
Effects on the Atmospheric Environment p. 301
Linkages with Climate Change p. 301
Case Study: Wildfire in Southern California p. 302
Professional Profile: Wildfires p. 305
Effects on the Biological Environment p. 306
Natural Service Functions of Wildfires p. 306
Benefits to Soil p. 306
Benefits to Plants and Animals p. 306
Yellowstone Fires of 1988 p. 307
Minimizing the Wildfire Hazard p. 307
Fire Management p. 307
Perception of and Adjustment to the Wildfire Hazard p. 308
Perception of the Wildfire Hazard p. 308
Adjustments to the Wildfire Hazard p. 309
Personal Adjustment to the Fire Hazard p. 310
Survivor Story: The Cedar Fire p. 311
Summary p. 312
Key Terms p. 312
Review Questions p. 312
Critical Thinking Questions p. 312
Selected Web Resources p. 313
Impacts and Extinctions p. 314
Case History: The Tunguska Event p. 314
Earth's Place in Space p. 316
Asteroids, Meteoroids, and Comets p. 318
Aerial Bursts and Impacts p. 319
Impact Craters p. 320
Survivor Story: Meterorites in Chicagoland p. 321
Case Study: Uniformitarianism, Gradualism, and Catastrophe p. 325
Mass Extinctions p. 326
Late Cretaceous: K-T Boundary Mass Extinction p. 327
Minimizing the Impact Hazard p. 331
Risk Related to Impacts p. 331
Case Study: Near Earth Objects p. 332
Minimizing the Impact Hazard p. 332
Professional Profile: Michael J. S. Shelton, Astronomer p. 334
Summary p. 336
Key Terms p. 336
Review Questions p. 336
Critical Thinking Questions p. 336
Selected Web Resources p. 337
Minerals p. 339
Rocks p. 347
Maps and Related Topics p. 349
How Geologists Determine Geologic Time p. 357
Glossary p. 361
References p. 373
Index p. 383