Table Of Contents:
Preface xxiii
Acknowledgments xxix

PART ONE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK 1(376)

Chapter I The Nature And Functions Of Administrative Agencies 3(108)

A The Origin and Mandate of Administrative Agencies 6(9)

1 Theories of the Origin of Administrative Agencies 6(4)

2 A Case Study: The Occupational Safety and Health Act 10(4)

Questions 14(1)

B Legislative Control of Administrative Agencies 15(47)

1 Authorization: The Problem of Delegation 16(1)

A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 17(2)

Notes and Questions 19(6)

Whitman v. American Trucking Assns., Inc. 25(5)

Notes and Questions 30(4)

2 Revision: The Legislative Veto 34(1)

Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha 35(12)

Notes and Questions 47(4)

3 Appropriations: Line Items and the Line-Item Veto 51(3)

Clinton v. City of New York 54(5)

Notes and Questions 59(1)

4 Legislative Oversight 60(2)

C Executive Control of Administrative Agencies 62(41)

1 Appointment and Removal Powers 64(1)

a Appointment Power 64(1)

Buckley v. Valeo 64(2)

Notes and Questions 66(3)

b Removal Power 69(1)

Myers v. United States 70(1)

Humphrey's Executor v. United States 71(1)

Bowsher v. Synar 72(2)

Questions 74(1)

c Appointment and Removal Reconsidered: The Independent Counsel and the Accounting Board 74(2)

Morrison v. Olson 76(9)

Notes and Questions 85(3)

Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board 88(9)

Notes and Questions 97(1)

2 Supervisory Powers 97(5)

Notes and Questions 102(1)

D Control Within Agencies 103(8)

1 The Problem of Control 103(1)

2 Patronage and Civil Service 104(2)

3 Allocation of Authority: Subdelegation 106(5)

Chapter II Judicial Review Of Administrative Decisions 111(120)

A Standards of Judicial Review Under the Administrative Procedure Act 112(15)

Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe 117(4)

Notes and Questions 121(6)

B Arbitrary and Capricious Review of Questions of Fact or Policy 127(28)

1 "Hard Look" Review and the Arbitrary, Capricious Standard 127(3)

Motor Vehicle Manufacturers Assn. v. State Farm Mutual Automobile Ins. Co. 130(7)

Notes and Questions 137(5)

2 Agency Changes of Policy and Arbitrary, Capricious Review 142(1)

Federal Communications Commission v. Fox Television Stations, Inc. 142(5)

Notes and Questions 147(1)

3 Agency Decisions Not to Act and Arbitrary, Capricious Review 148(1)

Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency 149(5)

Notes and Questions 154(1)

C Judicial Review of Questions of Law 155(44)

1 The Early Years 156(1)

National Labor Relations Board v. Hearst Publications 156(2)

Skidmore v. Swift & CO. 158(1)

2 The Chevron Doctrine 159(2)

Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. 161(6)

Notes and Questions 167(2)

MCI Telecommunications Corp. v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co. 169(1)

Babbitt v. Sweet Home Chapter of Communities for a Great Oregon 169(2)

Food and Drug Administration v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco Corp. 171(3)

Notes and Questions 174(7)

Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency 181(5)

Notes and Questions 186(1)

3 Mead and the Revival of Skidmore Deference 187(1)

United States v. Mead Corp. 188(8)

Notes and Questions 196(3)

D Judicial Review of Questions of Fact or Policy Under the Substantial Evidence Test 199(28)

1 Formal Adjudication 199(3)

In the Matter of Universal Camera Corporation 202(1)

National Labor Relations Board v. Universal Camera Corp. 203(2)

Universal Camera Corp. v. National Labor Relations Board 205(4)

National Labor Relations Board v. Universal Camera Corp. 209(2)

Notes and Questions 211(2)

2 Informal Rulemaking 213(2)

Industrial Union Dept., AFL-CIO v. American Petroleum Institute 215(10)

Notes and Questions 225(2)

E Judicial Remedies for Unlawful Agency Action 227(4)

Chapter III Availability Of Judicial Review 231(146)

A Jurisdiction 232(3)

B Reviewability 235(62)

1 "Agency Action" 236(1)

Norton v. Southern Utah Wilderness Alliance 237(6)

Notes and Questions 243(2)

2 Statutory Preclusion of Review 245(1)

Johnson v. Robison 246(2)

Notes and Questions 248(3)

McNary v. Haitian Refugee Center, Inc. 251(6)

Notes and Questions 257(4)

3 Committed to Agency Discretion by Law 261(1)

a General Principles 261(1)

Webster v. Doe 261(9)

Notes and Questions 270(1)

b Prosecutorial Discretion 271(3)

Heckler v. Chaney 274(8)

Notes and Questions 282(2)

c Regulatory Delay 284(1)

Public Citizen Health Research Group v. Chao 285(6)

Notes and Questions 291(2)

d Resource Allocation and Appropriations 293(1)

Lincoln v. Vigil 293(3)

Notes and Questions 296(1)

C Standing to Secure Judicial Review 297(48)

1 The Legal Right Test 299(2)

2 Standing Under the APA 301(1)

Association of Data Processing Service Organizations, Inc. v. Camp 301(3)

Barlow v. Collins 304(2)

Notes and Questions 306(3)

3 Constitutional Standing Requirements: Injury, Causation, Redressability 309(3)

Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife 312(14)

Notes and Questions 326(4)

Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency 330(7)

Notes and Questions 337(2)

Notes on Additional Standing Issues 339(6)

D The Timing of Judicial Review 345(24)

1 Pre-enforcement Challenges: Ripeness and Finality Requirements 346(1)

Abbott Laboratories v. Gardner 347(7)

Gardner v. Toilet Goods Assn. 354(2)

Notes and Questions 356(6)

2 Exhaustion of Administrative Remedies Prior to Seeking Judicial Review 362(1)

a Exhaustion Outside the APA 362(4)

b Exhaustion Under the APA 366(3)

E Res Judicata and Collateral Estoppel 369(8)

United States v. Mendoza 369(4)

Notes and Questions 373(4)

PART TWO ADMINISTRATIVE FUNCTIONS 377(538)

Chapter IV Policy Formation 379(190)

A Policymaking Instruments 380(44)

1 Legal Constraints on Choice of Policymaking Models 381(1)

a Due Process Constraints 381(2)

b Statutory Constraints 383(2)

2 Agency Authority to Make Policy by Rule 385(4)

National Petroleum Refiners Assn. v. Federal Trade Commission 389(7)

Notes and Questions 396(1)

3 Agency Discretion to Make Policy by Order After Adjudication 397(1)

Excelsior Underwear, Inc. 398(2)

Notes and Questions 400(1)

National Labor Relations Board v. Wyman-Gordon Co. 401(7)

Notes and Questions 408(3)

National Labor Relations Board v. Bell Aerospace Co. 411(2)

Notes and Questions 413(1)

4 Agency Authority to Make Policy by Manuals and Internal Guidelines 414(1)

Morton v. Ruiz 415(5)

Notes and Questions 420(1)

Note on Agencies' Obligation to Follow Their Own Procedural Rules 421(3)

B Public Participation in Rulemaking Procedures 424(104)

1 Formal and Informal Models of Rulemaking 424(3)

2 Notice 427(1)

Chocolate Manufacturers Assn. v. Block 427(5)

Notes and Questions 432(2)

3 Explanation of the Decision: The Concise General Statement 434(4)

4 Protecting the Integrity of the Rulemaking "Record": Ex Parte Contacts, Political Influence, and Prejudgment 438(1)

a Exclusivity of the Rulemaking Record 438(4)

Home Box Office v. Federal Communications Commission 442(3)

Notes and Questions 445(3)

b Political Influence on Administrative Policy 448(3)

Sierra Club v. Costle 451(7)

Notes and Questions 458(2)

c Impartiality of the Rulemaker 460(6)

Association of National Advertisers, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission 466(6)

Notes and Questions 472(2)

5 "Hybrid" Procedures for Informal Rulemaking 474(1)

a Statutory Hybrids 474(1)

b Judicially Fashioned Hybrids 475(4)

Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. v. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 479(3)

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc. 482(4)

Notes and Questions 486(4)

6 Exemptions from §553 490(1)

National Family Planning and Reproductive Health Association, Inc. v. Sullivan 491(5)

Notes and Questions 496(1)

Hoctor v. United States Department of Agriculture 497(4)

Notes and Questions 501(5)

Lincoln v. Vigil 506(2)

Notes and Questions 508(5)

7 Alternative Rulemaking Models 513(1)

a Negotiated Rulemaking 513(5)

Notes and Questions 518(3)

USA Group Loan Services, Inc. v. Riley 521(2)

Notes and Questions 523(2)

b Alternatives to Negotiated Rulemaking 525(3)

C Strengthening the Analytic Basis of Policymaking 528(41)

1 Presidential Oversight of Rulemaking 531(5)

Notes and Questions 536(1)

2 Cost-Benefit Analysis in Congress and the Courts 537(2)

American Textile Manufacturers Institute v. Donovan 539(2)

Notes and Questions 541(1)

Whitman v. American Trucking Associations, Inc. 542(5)

Notes and Questions 547(1)

Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc. 548(5)

Notes and Questions 553(1)

3 Impact Statements 554(4)

Strycker's Bay Neighborhood Council v. Karlen 558(2)

Notes and Questions 560(3)

Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Corp. v. Natural Resources Defense Council 563(1)

Robertson v. Methow Valley Citizens Council 564(3)

Notes and Questions 567(2)

Chapter V Adjudication 569(118)

A Agency Authority to Adjudicate 569(11)

Commodity Futures Trading Commn. v. Schor 571(8)

Notes and Questions 579(1)

B Due Process Hearing Rights 580(72)

1 The Interests Protected by Due Process 580(4)

Goldberg v. Kelly 584(8)

Notes and Questions 592(2)

Board of Regents v. Roth 594(5)

Notes and Questions 599(2)

Arnett v. Kennedy 601(2)

Bishop v. Wood 603(2)

Cleveland Bd. of Educ. v. Loudermill 605(1)

Notes and Questions 605(4)

O'Bannon v. Town Court Nursing Center 609(6)

Notes and Questions 615(1)

2 The Requirements of Due Process 616(1)

a The Eldridge Calculus 617(2)

Mathews v. Eldridge 619(5)

Notes and Questions 624(4)

Ingraham v. Wright 628(1)

Notes and Questions 629(2)

b The Right to a Neutral Decisionmaker 631(1)

Tumey v. Ohio 631(1)

Ward v. Village of Monroeville 632(1)

Notes and Questions 633(1)

Gibson v. Berryhill 634(3)

Notes and Questions 637(1)

Cinderella Career and Finishing Schools, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission 638(4)

Notes and Questions 642(1)

Withrow v. Larkin 643(4)

Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co., Inc. 647(4)

Notes and Questions 651(1)

C Statutory Hearing Rights 652(35)

1 Evidence and the Hearing Process 652(2)

Portland Audubon Soc'y v. Endangered Species Committee 654(5)

Notes and Questions 659(7)

2 Supervision and Oversight of Administrative Hearing Officers 666(2)

Association of Administrative Law Judges v. Heckler 668(3)

Notes and Questions 671(6)

3 Constraining Agency Adjudicators by Bright-Line Rules 677(1)

Heckler v. Campbell 678(3)

Notes and Questions 681(6)

Chapter VI Enforcement And Liability 687(140)

A Government Enforcement 687(51)

1 Monitoring and Investigation 691(1)

a Physical Inspections 692(3)

Marshall v. Barlow's, Inc. 695(6)

Notes and Questions 701(4)

b Compulsory Production of Information 705(3)

c Record-Keeping Requirements 708(1)

Ruckelshaus v. Monsanto Co. 709(8)

Notes and Questions 717(1)

2 Prosecution and Selective Enforcement 718(1)

a Prosecutorial Incentives 718(1)

b Remedies for Selective Enforcement 719(3)

Moog Industries, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission 722(1)

Federal Trade Commission v. Universal-Rundle Corp. 723(3)

Notes and Questions 726(3)

c Agency Enforcement Orders 729(1)

General Electric Co. v. Jackson 730(6)

Notes and Questions 736(2)

B Private Litigation and Regulatory Enforcement 738(46)

1 Citizen Suits to Compel Public Enforcement 738(1)

Scott v. City of Hammond, Indiana 739(4)

Notes and Questions 743(3)

2 Implied Private Rights of Action to Enforce Public Laws 746(1)

a Expansion: Policy-Based Justifications for Implying Private Rights of Action 747(1)

J. I. Case Co. v. Borak 747(3)

Notes and Questions 750(1)

b Retrenchment: Reading Legislative Intent to Exclude Private Rights of Action 751(1)

Cort v. Ash 752(4)

Notes and Questions 756(2)

Karakalios v. National Federation of Federal Employees, Local 1263 758(3)

Notes and Questions 761(1)

3 Public-Law Preclusion of Existing Private Remedies: Primary Jurisdiction and Pre-emption 762(1)

a Primary Jurisdiction 762(3)

b Regulatory Pre-emption 765(1)

Geier v. American Honda Motor Co., Inc. 766(8)

Notes and Questions 774(10)

C Liability of Public Entities and Officers 784(43)

1 Suits Against Sovereigns 785(1)

a Sovereign Immunity at Common Law 785(3)

b Federal Statutory Liability: The Federal Tort Claims Act 788(8)

United States v. Gaubert 796(5)

Notes and Questions 801(5)

2 Suits Against Government Officers 806(1)

a Common Law Actions 806(3)

b Judicially Created Constitutional Torts 809(6)

Note on Official Immunity 815(12)

Chapter VII Licensing 827(88)

A Occupational Licensing 828(13)

1 Due Process and the Problem of Self-Regulation 828(2)

Friedman v. Rogers 830(4)

Notes and Questions 834(1)

2 Alternative Constraints on Occupational Self-Regulation 835(1)

a Antitrust 835(5)

b The First Amendment 840(1)

B Business Licensing---Entry Regulation 841(44)

1 Broadcast Licensing Procedures: How to Spin a Wheel of Fortune 842(2)

a The Applicant's Right to Be Heard: The Ashbacker Doctrine 844(2)

Ashbacker Radio Corp. v. Federal Communications Commission 846(3)

Notes and Questions 849(2)

b Restricting the Scope of Hearings by Rule: The Storer Case 851(1)

United States v. Storer Broadcasting Co. 852(3)

Notes and Questions 855(5)

2 Licensing Standards: Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? 860(1)

a Setting the Standards 860(1)

b Standards in Action: The Cowles Saga 861(1)

Cowles Florida Broadcasting, Inc. 862(9)

Central Florida Enterprises, Inc. v. Federal Communications Commission 871(1)

Notes and Questions 872(4)

c Clarity, Consistency, and License Administration: A Game of Jeopardy? 876(2)

Writers Guild of America, West, Inc. v. American Broad-Casting Cos. 878(2)

Notes and Questions 880(2)

d License Awards by Lottery and Auction: Is the Price Right? 882(3)

C Business Licensing---Rate Regulation 885(12)

MCI Telecommunications Corp. v. American Telephone & Telegraph Co. 889(7)

Notes and Questions 896(1)

D Epilogue: Deregulation, Reregulation, and Regulatory Reform 897(18)

AT&T Corp. v. Iowa Utilities Board 897(3)

Notes and Questions 900(1)

National Cable & Telecommunications Assn. v. Brand X Internet Services 901(9)

Notes and Questions 910(5)

PART THREE INDIRECT CONTROLS 915(58)

Chapter VIII Public Access 917(56)

A Public Access to Government Records 917(42)

1 Agency Records Under the Freedom of Information Act 920(1)

Kissinger v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press 920(8)

Notes and Questions 928(3)

2 Exemptions from FOIA's Disclosure Requirement 931(1)

a Deliberation 932(1)

National Labor Relations Board v. Sears, Roebuck & Co. 932(4)

Notes and Questions 936(3)

b Law Enforcement 939(1)

Federal Bureau of Investigation v. Abramson 939(6)

Notes and Questions 945(4)

c Privacy 949(1)

Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press 949(5)

Notes and Questions 954(5)

B Public Access to Administrative Deliberations 959(14)

1 "Meetings of an Agency" 960(1)

Federal Communications Commission v. ITT World Communications, Inc. 960(3)

Notes and Questions 963(1)

2 Exemptions 963(1)

Common Cause v. Nuclear Regulatory Commission 963(7)

Notes and Questions 970(3)

APPENDIX 973(30)

The Constitution of the United States of America (Selected Provisions) 973(9)

The Administrative Procedure Act and Related Provisions 982(21)
Table of Cases 1003(14)
Table of Secondary Authorities 1017(14)
Index 1031