Table Of Contents:
About the Author xli
Preface xliii
Acknowledgments xlvii

1 Introduction to Employment Law and the Employment Relationship

Chapter Objectives 1(1)

I Relevance of Employment Law and Related Issues 2(1)

II Employment Law Versus Labor Law 2(2)

A Substantive Differences 3(1)

B Changing Landscape 3(1)

C Significant Union Issues are Identified 4(1)

III Textbook is not a Substitute for Legal Advice 4(6)

A Number of Source of Law 4(1)

1 Statutory Law 5(1)

a Variatons in Types of Issues Regulated 5(1)

b Variations on Available Causes of Action and Defenses 5(1)

2 Common Law 6(1)

3 Administrative Regulations 6(1)

4 Federal and State Constitutions 7(1)

B Laws Apply to Different Employers 7(1)

C Laws are Complex 8(1)

1 Determinations are Fact Specific 8(1)

2 Determinations are Subjective 8(1)

D Laws Change 9(1)

E Laws Play Various Roles 9(1)

IV Employment Relationship 10(1)

A Consistent and Inconsistent Goals 10(1)

B Unstable Relationship 10(1)

C Symbolism of a Job 10(1)

V Textbook Structure 11(2)

Key Terms 11(1)

Discussion Questions 12(1)

PART I WORKPLACE DISCRIMINATION 13(124)

2 Title VII---The Foundation of Workplace Discrimination Law

Chapter Objectives 15(1)

I Introduction 16(4)

II Applicability of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 20(2)

A Covered Employers 20(1)

B Discrimination Defined 20(1)

1 Adverse Action 20(1)

2 Membership in a Protected Class 21(1)

a Nature of Protected Class 21(1)

b Membership in a Protected Class is Nonexclusive 21(1)

c Limitations on Protections 22(1)

d Expanison of Protections 22(1)

III Types of Evidence 22(2)

A Direct Evidence 22(1)

B Circumstantial Evidence 23(1)

IV Filing a Claim Under Title VII 24(2)

A Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) 24(1)

B Statute of Limitations 25(1)

1 One Hundred and Eighty (180) Days 25(1)

2 Triggering Event for Compensation Claims Under the Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 25(1)

C EEOC Response to the Filing of a Claim 26(1)

V Filing a Discrimination Claim in federal Court 26(1)

VI Disparate Treatment Claims 27(5)

A Prima Facie Case 27(1)

1 Membership in a Protected Class 27(1)

2 Qualified for the Position 28(1)

3 Adverse Action 28(1)

4 Candidates with Comparable Qualifications Continue to be Considered 28(1)

B Employer's Burden: Articulate a Legitimate, Nondiscriminatory Reason for its Adverse Decision 29(1)

1 Appropriate Justifications for Making Adverse Decisions 29(1)

2 Extent of Burden 29(1)

a Appropriateness of Objectives and Subjective Considerations 30(1)

b Deference to Employer 30(1)

C Employee to Show Employer's Justification for Decision is a Pretext 30(1)

1 Pretext-Plus 30(1)

a Prima Facie Case May be Sufficient to Satisfy Pretext-Plus Burden 31(1)

b Plaintiff Continues to have Ultimate Burden of Proof 31(1)

2 Mixed-Motive Claims 32(1)

VII Disparate Impact Claims 32(3)

A Significance of Unintentional Discrimination 32(1)

B Employer's Intent is Irrelevant 33(1)

C Basis for Disparate Impact Claims 33(1)

D Presentation of Proof for a Disparate Impact Claim 34(1)

1 Prima Facie Case 34(1)

2 Showing of Business Necessity 34(1)

3 Less Discriminatory Alternatives 35(1)

VIII Allowance for Conduct that Would Otherwise be Discriminatory 35(3)

A Work Production 36(1)

B Seniority Systems and Professionally Developed Tests 36(1)

C Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications (BFOQs) as a Defense to Discriminatory Conduct Based on Religion, Sex, and National Origin 36(1)

1 Safety 37(1)

2 Privacy 37(1)

3 Religion 37(1)

4 Narrow Application of Defense 37(1)

5 Customer Preference 38(1)

IX Retaliation 38(3)

A Scope of Protection 38(1)

B Imposition of Adverse Action in Response to Assertion of a Legal Right 39(1)

C Types of Retaliation Claims 39(1)

1 Protected Activity 39(1)

2 Opposition Claims 40(1)

3 Participation Claims 40(1)

D Employer Liability for Unsubstantiated Discrimination Claims 40(1)

X Remedies Under Title VII 41(3)

A Types of Damages 41(1)

B Civil Rights Act of 1991 Establishes Authority for Expanded Damages for Intentional Discrimination 42(1)

1 Compensatory Damages 42(1)

2 Punitive Damages 42(1)

3 Statutory Caps on Damages 42(1)

C Mitigation of Damages 42(1)

D Considerations That May Affect the Amount of Damages Awarded 43(1)

1 Legitimate, Nondiscriminatory Reason for the Adverse Decision 43(1)

a Mixed Motive 43(1)

b After-Acquired Evidence Rule 43(1)

2 Employer Exerted Reasonable Efforts to Comply with the Law 44(1)

Key Terms 44(1)

Discussion Questions 44(7)

3 Race, Color, and National Origin Discrimination

Chapter Objectives 51(1)

I Race and Color Discrimination 52(3)

A Extent of Discriminatory Conduct 52(1)

B Broad Application 53(2)

C Disparate Treatment Discrimination 55(1)

D Disparate Impact Discrimination 55(1)

II National Origin 55(9)

A Broad Application 55(1)

1 Birthplace 56(1)

2 National Origin or Ethnic Group 56(1)

3 Citizenship 56(1)

a Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) 56(1)

b Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) 57(1)

B Language Issues 57(1)

1 Accent Discrimination 57(5)

2 Fluency Requirements 62(1)

3 English-Only Rules 62(1)

a Must Support a Business Necessity 63(1)

b Must be Narrowly Tailored 63(1)

C Customer Preference 63(1)

D Membership in More Than One Protected Class 64(1)

III Hostile Work Environment Claims Based on Race, Color, and National Origin 64(1)

Key Terms 65(1)

Discussion Questions 65(4)

4 Religious Discrimination

Chapter Objectives 69(1)

I Introduction 70(1)

A Scope of Protection 70(1)

B Extent of Discrimination 70(1)

C Exception for Religious Corporations 70(1)

D Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications (BFOQs) as a Defense to Discriminatory Conduct 71(1)

II Basis for a Claim 71(3)

A Religion and Religious Practices 72(1)

1 Definition of Religion 72(1)

2 Definition of Religious Conduct or Practice 73(1)

a Broadly Defined 73(1)

b Reason for Participating in Practice 73(1)

B Sincerity of Belief 73(1)

1 Employer's Right to Challenge Sincerity 73(1)

2 Level of Sincerity May Change 74(1)

C Awareness of the Conflict 74(1)

D Presence of Discriminatory Conduct 74(1)

III Duty to Provide a Reasonable Accommodation 74(7)

A Defining a Reasonable Accommodation 75(1)

1 Fact-Specific Inquiry 75(1)

2 Extent of Obligation 75(1)

a Full Accommodation is Desirable 75(1)

b Partial Accommodation Might be Sufficient 75(1)

C No Obligation to Offer the Accommodation Proposed by an Employee 76(1)

B Undue Burden 76(1)

1 Relevant Considerations 77(1)

2 Financial Considerations 77(1)

a Cost-Neutral Arrangements 77(1)

b Obligation to Absorb de Minimis Costs 77(1)

3 Nonfinancial Considerations 78(1)

a Impact of the Accommodation on Others 78(1)

b Some Disruption May Result 78(1)

4 Extent of Hardship Must be Considered 78(1)

C Categories of Accommodations 79(1)

1 Flexible Schedules and Swapping of Shifts 79(1)

a Presence of Policy not Determinative 79(1)

b Employer Effort to Alleviate Burden 79(1)

2 Work Responsibilities 80(1)

a Reassignment of Peripheral Job Tasks 80(1)

b Lateral Transfers 80(1)

3 Dress Codes and Grooming Requirements 81(1)

IV Religious Expression 81(1)

A Definition of Religious Expression 81(1)

B Regulation of Religious Expression 81(1)

C Fact-Specific Inquiry 82(1)

D Accommodation of Employees Who do not Share Beliefs of Employer 82(1)

Key Terms 82(1)

Discussion Questions 83(4)

5 Sex, Pregnancy, and Genetic Discrimination

Chapter Objectives 87(1)

I Discrimination Based on Sex 88(3)

A Prohibition Applies to Men and Women 88(1)

B Basis for the Claim 89(1)

1 Stereotypes 89(1)

2 Customer Preference 90(1)

C Employee Benefits 90(1)

D Sex-Plus Discrimination 90(1)

E Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) 90(1)

II Discrimination Based on Pregnancy 91(1)

A Pregnancy and Maternity Leave 92(1)

B Medical and Fringe Benefits 92(1)

III Sex Discrimination and the Equal Pay Act (EPA) 92(1)

IV Discrimination Based on Genetics 93(2)

A Genetic Testing 93(1)

B Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) 93(1)

1 Genetic Information 94(1)

2 Rights and Remedies Under GINA Parallel Title VII 94(1)

Key Terms 95(1)

Discussion Questions 95(4)

6 Age Discrimination

Chapter Objectives 99(1)

I Scope of Coverage of the Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) 100(1)

A Individuals Covered 100(1)

B Recruitment 101(1)

C Terms and Conditions of Employment 101(1)

II Disparate Treatment Discrimination 101(4)

A Prima Facie Case 101(1)

B Proof 102(1)

1 Direct Evidence 102(1)

2 Circumstantial Evidence 102(1)

C Employer Defenses to Evidence of Discriminatory Conduct 102(1)

1 Legitimate, Nondiscriminatory Reason 103(1)

2 Bona Fide Seniority System 103(1)

3 Bona Fide Occupational Qualification (BFOQ) 104(1)

D Pretext 105(1)

III Disparate Impact Discrimination 105(2)

A Applicability of Analysis 106(1)

B Framework 106(1)

IV Benefits 107(3)

A Employees Must Generally Receive Same Benefits 107(1)

B Equal-Cost Defense to Justify Offering of Reduced Benefits 107(1)

C Alternative Source of Funding 108(1)

D Bona Fide Employee Retirement Plans 108(1)

1 Mandatory Retirement Plans 108(1)

2 Voluntary Early Retirement Incentives 108(1)

a Judicial Decisions to Ensure Voluntariness 109(1)

b Congressional Action to Ensure Voluntariness 109(1)

Key Terms 110(1)

Discussion Questions 110(5)

7 Disability Discrimination

Chapter Objectives 115(1)

I Introduction to the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (ADAAA) 116(1)

A Potential Liability 116(1)

B Employment not Guaranteed 116(1)

II Definition of Disability 117(6)

A Impairments 117(1)

1 Types of Impairments 117(1)

a Physical Impairements 117(1)

b Mental Impairments 117(1)

2 Impairment Must Substantially Limit a Major Life Activity 118(1)

a Major Life Activity 118(1)

b Substantial Limitation 118(1)

i Limitation Might Stem from a Related Condition 119(1)

ii Mitigating Measures 119(1)

(a) Relevance of Mitigating Measure to Determine Whether an Individual is Disabled 119(1)

(b) Determining Whether a Reasonable Accommodation is Required 119(1)

(c) Exception for Ordinary Eyeglasses and Contact Lenses 119(1)

iii Conditions That Generally do not Constitute a Substantial Limitation 120(1)

B Record of an Impairment 120(1)

1 Employer Prejudice and Ignorance 120(1)

2 Volunteered Information Establishes Record 121(1)

3 Employer Knowledge of Past Impairment 121(1)

C Regarded as Having Such an Impairment 121(1)

1 Inaccurate Characterization 122(1)

2 Potential Risk of Becoming Disabled 122(1)

D Illegal Drug use and Alcoholism 122(1)

III Obligations Imposed on the Employer 123(5)

A Qualified Individual with a Disability 123(1)

B Extent of Obligation to Provide a Reasonable Accommodation 123(1)

1 Obligation Applies to all Terms and Conditions of Employment 124(1)

2 Reasonableness of the Accommodation 124(1)

3 Undue Burden 124(1)

a No Obligation to Alter Essential Job Functions 125(1)

b Identifying Essential Job Functions 125(1)

4 Presence of a Direct Threat 125(1)

a Absence of Alternatives 125(1)

b Relevant Considerations 126(1)

C Employers Retain the Right to Determine the Nature of the Accommodation within the Statutory Parameters 126(1)

D Types of Accommodations 126(1)

1 Common Accommodations 127(1)

2 Accommodations Tied to a Specific Disability 127(1)

3 Disability Leave 127(1)

a Continuation of Health Insurance 127(1)

b Rights of Returning Employees 127(1)

IV Requesting Medical Information and Medical Examinations 128(1)

A Pre-Employment Medical Inquiries and Testing 128(1)

B Medical Inquiries About Current Employees 128(1)

C Medical Information That Impacts Work Performance 129(1)

V Presenting a Discrimination Claim Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 129(1)

A Disparate Treatment Discrimination 129(1)

1 Presentation of Proof 129(1)

2 Shifting of Burdens of Proof 130(1)

B Disparate Impact Discrimination 130(1)

Key Terms 130(1)

Discussion Questions 131(6)

PART II HIRING 137(108)

8 Employees Versus Independent Contractors

Chapter Objectives 139(1)

I Importance of the Classification 140(1)

A Assessing the Need to Hire 140(1)

B Other Issues to Consider in Structuring the Relationship 140(1)

C Variations on Traditional Employment Relationships 141(1)

II Distinguishing Between Employees and Independent Contractors 141(15)

A Complexity of Classification 142(1)

B Absence of Definitive Classification 142(1)

C Common Law Right to Control 143(1)

1 Respondeat Superior 143(1)

2 Factors Used to Determine Existence of the Right to Control 144(1)

a Restatement (Second) of Agency 144(1)

b Judicial Application of the Right to Control Test 144(1)

3 Application of Factors 144(2)

a Central versus Peripheral Job Task 146(1)

b Workspace and Number of Clients 146(1)

C Wages and Length of Employment 146(1)

D Economic Realities Test 147(1)

1 Economic Dependence is Determinative 147(1)

2 Right to Control is not Determinative 147(1)

3 Use of Economic Realities Test 148(1)

E Factors Considered by the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) 149(1)

1 Significance of Classification for Tax Purposes 149(1)

2 Relevant Considerations 149(1)

3 Form SS-8 150(1)

F Factors Considered for Determining Eligibility for Workers' Compensation 150(1)

1 Right to Control 150(4)

2 Method of Payment 154(1)

3 Location of Work Performance and Provision of Materials 154(1)

4 Right to Terminate 154(1)

G Structuring the Relationship to be Consistent with the Desired Classification 154(1)

1 Assessing the Needs of an Employer 155(1)

a Hiring Employees 155(1)

b Hiring Independent Contractors 156(1)

2 Assessing the Needs of an Individual 156(1)

3 Ensuring Conduct is Consistent with Agreed-on Classification 156(1)

Key Terms 156(1)

Discussion Questions 157(4)

9 Recruiting and Assembling a Diverse Applicant Pool

Chapter Objectives 161(1)

I Need For a Hiring Process 161(2)

A Identify the Ideal Candidate 162(1)

B Minimize Costs Associated with High Turnover 162(1)

C Enhance Employee Morale 162(1)

D Minimize Workplace Discrimination Claims 163(1)

II Relevance of the Prohibition Against Discrimination to the Recruitment Process 163(2)

A Extent of the Prohibition Under Federal Law 163(1)

B Extent of the Prohibition Under State Law 164(1)

C Allocation of Resources 164(1)

III Job Descriptions 165(3)

A Job Tasks and Responsibilities 165(1)

1 Essential versus Tangential Tasks 165(1)

2 Other Related Duties 166(1)

B Minimum Qualifications 166(1)

1 Years of Experience 167(1)

2 Subjective versus Objective Responsibilities 167(1)

3 Uniform Application 168(1)

IV Applicant Pool 168(6)

A Obligation to Consider All Qualified Applicants 168(1)

1 Customer Preference 168(1)

2 Co-Worker Preference 169(1)

3 Employment Agencies 169(1)

B Cost-Effective Recruitment Tools 169(1)

1 Employee Referrals/Word-of-Mouth Recruiting 170(1)

a Intentional Discriminatory Result 170(1)

b Unintentional Discriminatory Result 170(1)

2 Nepotism 170(1)

3 Job Fairs, Internships, and Professional Organizations 171(1)

C Job Postings and Advertisements 171(1)

1 Drafting the Advertisement 171(1)

a Using Neutral Terms 171(1)

i Age 172(1)

ii Gender 172(1)

b Encouraging Diverse Applicants 173(1)

2 Posting the Advertisement 173(1)

a Newspapers 173(1)

b Internet 173(1)

D Monitoring Responses to Advertisement 174(1)

Key Terms 174(1)

Discussion Questions 174(5)

10 Collection of Information: The Application and Interview

Chapter Objectives 179(1)

I Collecting Information from Applicants 180(1)

A Liability May Arise from Any Information Employer Possesses 180(1)

B Narrowly Tailor Questions to Solicit Job-Related Information 180(1)

C Uniform Process 181(1)

II Employment Application 181(4)

A Electronic Applications 182(1)

1 Disparate Treatment Discrimination 182(1)

2 Disparate Impact Discrimination 182(1)

B Video Resumes and Photographs 183(1)

C Content of Application 183(1)

1 Clarifying the Impact of Submitting an Application 183(1)

2 Explanation of Requests for Additional Information 184(1)

a Verification of Information 184(1)

b Pre-Employment Testing 184(1)

c Verification of Eligibility to Work in the United States 185(1)

3 Confirming Employer Commitment to Avoiding Discriminatory Conduct 185(1)

4 Requesting Signature of Applicant 185(1)

III Interview 185(2)

A Definition of Interview 185(1)

B Preliminary Conversations are Relevant 186(1)

C No Specific Reference to Membership in a Protected Class is Necessary 186(1)

D Manage Discussion 186(1)

IV Framing the Appropriate Questions 187(18)

A Contact Information 187(1)

1 Name and Address 187(1)

2 Emergency Contact Information 188(1)

B Family Issues 188(1)

1 Relatives 188(1)

2 Marital Status 189(1)

3 Sexual Orientation 189(1)

C Height and Weight 190(1)

D Age 190(1)

E Race and Color 191(1)

F Religion 191(1)

G Sex and Pregnancy 192(1)

H National Origin, Birthplace, and Citizenship 192(1)

I Foreign Language Skills 193(1)

J Medical Issues 194(1)

1 Disabilities 194(1)

2 Family Medical History/Genetics 194(1)

3 Injuries 195(1)

K Qualifications 196(1)

1 Education 196(1)

2 Work Experience 196(1)

3 Professional Organizations 197(1)

L Terms and Conditions of Employment 197(1)

1 Scheduling 197(1)

2 Attendance 198(1)

3 Compensation 198(1)

M Personal Finances 199(1)

1 Credit 199(1)

2 Home Ownership 199(1)

N Personal Habits 200(1)

1 Smoking 200(3)

2 Alcohol Use 203(1)

3 Drug Use 203(1)

O Miscellaneous 203(1)

1 Arrest and Conviction Records 203(1)

2 Military Experience and Discharge 204(1)

3 Open-Ended Questions 204(1)

V Conversations That May Bind an Employer 205(1)

A Length of Employment 205(1)

B Terms and Conditions of Employment 206(1)

VI Memorializing the Agreement 206(1)

A Employment Contract 206(1)

B Offer Letter 206(1)

VII Post-Job-Offer Issues 207(1)

A Maintenance of Records 207(1)

1 Characterization of Decision 207(1)

2 Limit Record to Relevant Characteristics 208(1)

B Post-Hiring Collection of Information 208(1)

Key Terms 208(1)

Discussion Questions 208(5)

11 Pre-Employment Testing

Chapter Objectives 213(1)

I Introduction 214(2)

A Common Tests 214(1)

B Liability for Discriminatory Conduct 215(1)

1 Disparate Treatment Discrimination 215(1)

2 Disparate Impact Discrimination 215(1)

II Administration of Tests 216(1)

A Disability Discrimination 216(1)

1 Providing a Reasonable Accommodation 216(1)

2 Assesing the Need for an Accommodation 217(1)

B Religious Discrimination 217(1)

III Job-Related Selection Tests 217(5)

A Benefits 218(1)

B Drawbacks 218(1)

C Types of Job-Related Selection Tests 218(1)

1 Cognitive Tests 218(1)

2 Strength Tests 219(1)

3 Psychological and Personality Tests 219(1)

D General Framework for Testing 219(1)

1 Apply Test Uniformly 219(1)

a Test all Applicants 220(1)

b Apply Uniform Standards 220(1)

2 Limit Tests to Job-Related Skills 220(1)

a Business Need 220(1)

b Potential Liability Under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 221(1)

3 Narrowly Tailor Tests to Minimize Any Adverse Impact 221(1)

a Measure the Minimum Skills Necessary to Perform the Essential Job Tasks 221(1)

b Collect Information That can be Appropriately Considered 222(1)

4 Modify the Test as Circumstances Warrant 222(1)

IV Background Checks Generally 222(4)

A Negligent Hiring 223(1)

1 Basis for a Claim 223(1)

2 Foreseeability of Harm 223(1)

B Technological Impact 224(1)

C Uniform Application of Policies 224(1)

D Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA) 224(1)

1 Information Covered 225(1)

2 Authorization for use of a Consumer Reporting Agency 225(1)

3 Use of Information as the Basis for an Adverse Employment Decision 225(1)

V Criminal Background Checks 226(1)

A State Laws Impose Restrictions 226(1)

B Blanket Disqualifications are Generally Prohibited 226(1)

C Arrest Records as the Basis for a Disqualification 227(3)

1 Not Conclusive Proof Crime Occurred 227(1)

2 Disparate Impact Discrimination 227(1)

3 Appropriate use of Information 227(1)

a Connection Between the Charges and the Ability to Perform Essential Job Functions 228(1)

b Likelihood the Applicant Engaged in the Unlawful Conduct 228(1)

D Criminal Convictions 229(1)

1 Statutory Obligations 229(1)

2 Security Risk 229(1)

3 Connection Between the Conviction and the Essential Job Functions 229(1)

VI Reference Checks 230(1)

A Verification of Information 230(1)

B Appropriate use of Negative Information 230(1)

C Drawing Inferences 231(1)

D Use of Third Parties to Conduct Reference Checks 231(1)

VII Credit Checks 231(1)

A Use of Credit Checks Closely Scrutinized 232(1)

B Assessing the Business Need for a Credit Check 232(1)

VIII Polygraph Tests 232(4)

A Definition 232(1)

B Employee Polygraph Protection Act (EPPA) 232(1)

1 Limits on use 233(1)

2 Appropriate use 233(1)

a Limited Scope of Permissible use 233(1)

b Rights of an Individual Subjected to a Polygraph Test 233(3)

IX Medical and Drug Inquiries and Testing 236(2)

A Medical Inquires 236(1)

1 Ability to Perform Essential Job Tasks 236(1)

2 No Obligation to Reveal Medical Conditions 236(1)

B Medical Examinations 237(1)

1 Conditional Offers of Employment are Permissible 237(1)

2 Obligation to Provide a Reasonable Accommodation 237(1)

C Maintenance of the Results of Medical Inquiries and Examinations 238(1)

D Drug Inquiries 238(1)

Key Terms 238(1)

Discussion Questions 239(6)

PART III MANAGING 245(146)

12 Compensation and Benefits

Chapter Objectives 247(1)

I Definition of Compensation 248(1)

II Compensation Pursuant to the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) 248(15)

A Coverage 248(1)

B Minimum Hourly Rate of Pay 249(1)

C Overtime 249(2)

1 Workweek 251(1)

2 Unauthorized Hours Worked 251(1)

D Compensatory Time 251(1)

1 Availability of Compensatory Time for Private Employees 251(1)

2 Availability of Compensatory Time for Public Employees 251(1)

3 Availability of Compensatory Time for Employees not Covered by the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) 252(1)

E Exemptions from Fair Labor Standards Act (FISA) Coverage 252(1)

1 Partial or Full Exemption 252(1)

2 Categories of Exempt Employees 253(1)

a Executive Employee Exemption 253(1)

b Administrative Employee Exemption 253(1)

c Professional Employee Exemption 254(1)

d Outside Sales Capacity 254(1)

e Other Exemptions 254(1)

F Categories of Covered Employees 255(1)

G Regulation of Child Labor 255(1)

H Other Working Conditions are not Regulated 255(1)

1 Enhanced Compensation for Hours Worked Under Different Conditions 256(1)

2 Classification of Part-Time and Full-Time Employees 256(1)

I Relationship Between State and Federal Law 256(1)

1 State Minimum Wage Laws 257(1)

2 Conflict Between State and Federal Minimum Wage Laws 257(3)

3 Terms and Conditions of Employment May be Regulated by state Law 260(1)

4 Terms and Conditions of Employment That Exceed State and Federal Law 260(1)

J Recordkeeping and Notices 261(1)

K Remedies 262(1)

1 Compensation Violations 262(1)

2 Child Labor Violations 262(1)

III Equal Pay Act (EPA) 263(7)

A Coverage 263(1)

B Potential Liability 263(1)

C Asserting a Claim 263(1)

1 Higher Wage Paid to an Employee of the Opposite Sex 264(1)

2 Substantially Equal Work 264(1)

a Skill 264(1)

i Lower-Level Responsibilities are not Determinative 265(1)

ii Relevance of Skills to the Common Core of Tasks 265(1)

b Effort 265(1)

c Responsibility 265(1)

i Varying Levels of Responsibilities 265(1)

ii Peripheral Duties May Become Significant 266(1)

3 Working Conditions 266(1)

D Affirmative Defenses 267(1)

1 Seniority Systems 267(1)

2 Merit Systems 268(1)

3 Incentive Systems 268(1)

4 Factors Other Than Sex 268(1)

a Legitimate Considerations 268(1)

b Red Circling 269(1)

E Liability 269(1)

1 Intent not Required 269(1)

2 Remedies 269(1)

IV Compensation Discrimination 270(1)

A Membership in a Protected Class 270(1)

B Disparate Treatment Discrimination 270(1)

C Disparate Impact Discrimination 270(1)

V Benefits 271(5)

A Health Insurance 271(1)

1 Types of Medical Plans 272(1)

2 Federal Legislation That Regulates Medical Plans 272(1)

a Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 (ERISA) 272(1)

b Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (COBRA) 272(1)

c Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) 273(1)

3 Obligation to Provide Continuing Coverage During Job-Protected Leave 273(1)

B Retirement Benefits 273(1)

1 Defined Benefits Plan 273(1)

2 Defined Contribution Plan 274(1)

C Miscellaneous Benefits 274(1)

1 Life Insurance 275(1)

2 Disability Benefits 275(1)

D Obligation to Provide Coverage on a Uniform and Nondiscriminatory Basis 276(1)

Key Terms 276(1)

Discussion Questions 277

13 Paid and Unpaid Leave

Chapter Objectives 263(21)

I Paid Leave for Illnesses, Holidays, Vacations, Funerals, and Personal Reasons 284(1)

II Family and Medical Leave Act (FMLA) 285(9)

A Caregivers Receive no Specific Protections Under Title VII 285(1)

B Leave Entitlement 286(1)

C Scope of Coverage 286(1)

D Calculation of Leave 286(1)

1 Twelve-Month Period 286(1)

2 Twelve Weeks of Leave 287(1)

a Intermittent Leave 287(1)

b Reduced Leave Schedule 287(1)

E Traditional Reasons for Leave 287(1)

E Traditional Reasons for Leave 287(1)

1 Family Care 287(1)

2 Serious Medical Condition 288(1)

a Definition 288(1)

b Legislative History 288(1)

c Relationship Between Serious Medical Conditions and Disabilities 289(1)

d Healthcare Provider 289(1)

F Military Family Leave Entitlements 289(1)

1 Covered Employees and Length of Leave 289(1)

2 Military Caregiver Leave 289(1)

3 Qualifying Exigency Leave 290(1)

G Employer Cannot Deny the Leave Request 290(1)

H Parameters of Leave 291(1)

1 Substitution of Paid Leave 291(1)

2 Job-Protected Leave 291(1)

3 Fringe Benefits 291(1)

a Medical Benefits 292(1)

b Life Insurance and Disability Insurance 292(1)

4 Other Terms and Conditions of Employment 292(1)

I Notice 292(1)

1 Employee Notice of Intent to Take FMLA-Related Leave 292(1)

2 Employer Notice of FMLA-Related Leave Designation 293(1)

J Rights of Employers to Request Information About the Nature of the Leave 293(1)

K Employer's Obligation to Notify Employees of Their FMLA Rights 294(1)

III Paid Jury Leave and Military Leave 294(3)

A Jury Leave 294(1)

B Military Leave Pursuant to the Uniformed Services Employment and Reemployment Rights Act (USERRA) 294(2)

1 Employee Notice of Intent to Take Military Leave 296(1)

2 Length of Leave 296(1)

3 Reemployment Rights 296(1)

4 Venterans 296(1)

5 Employer's Obligation to Post Notification of Rights 297(1)

IV Attendance 297(3)

A Strict Attendance Policies 297(1)

B Perfect Attendance Awards 297(2)

C Attendance as an Essential Job Function 299(1)

D Alternatives to Strict Policy 299(1)

E Telecommuting 300(1)

Key Terms 300(1)

Discussion Questions 300(7)

14 Performance Management

Chapter Objectives 307(1)

I Probationary Period 308(1)

A Length of the Probationary Period 308(1)

1 Linking the Length of the Probationary Period to a Job Title 308(1)

2 Extending the Probationry Period 309(1)

B Right to Terminate at the Conclusion of the Probationary Period 309(1)

II Progressive Discipline 309(8)

A Steps 310(1)

1 Counseling 310(1)

2 Verbal Warning 310(1)

3 Written Warning 311(1)

4 Suspension 311(1)

5 Termination 312(1)

B Importance of Following Steps 312(1)

C Steps Should Be Linked to Problematic Behavior 312(1)

1 Benefits of Narrowly Tailored Discipline 313(1)

2 Benefits of Broadly Defined Discipline 313(1)

D Justification for Deviation from Steps in the Process 313(1)

1 Skipping of Steps 314(1)

2 Repetition of Steps 314(1)

a Nature of Behavior 314(1)

b Passage of Time Since Prior Misconduct and Imposition of Discipline 314(1)

E Common Challenges 315(1)

1 Lack of Documentation 315(1)

2 Passage of Too Much Time Between Misconduct and Imposition of Discipline 315(1)

3 Passage of Too Little time Before Escalation to the Next Step 316(1)

F Potential for Discrimination Claims 316(1)

1 Impose Discipline in a Uniform Manner 316(1)

2 Place Employees on Notice of Process 317(1)

III Performance Management tools And Employment At Will 317(2)

A Probationary Period 317(1)

B Progressive Discipline 318(1)

C Minimizing the Impact 318(1)

IV Performance Evaluations 319(6)

A Reasons for the Use of Evaluations 319(1)

1 Identifying and Remedying Problematic Behavior 319(1)

2 Determining the Appropriate Terms and Conditions of Employment 320(1)

B Workplace Discrimination 320(1)

1 Disparate Treatment Discrimination 320(1)

2 Disparate Impact Discrimination 321(1)

3 Retaliation 321(1)

C Defamation 321(1)

D Litigation Value of Evalutions 322(1)

E Framework for the Evaluation Process 322(1)

1 Train Evaluators 322(1)

2 Ensure Evaluators Have Direct Knowledge of Employee Work Performance 323(1)

3 Evaluations as Employment Tests and Selection Procedures 323(1)

a Employees Evaluated 323(1)

b Substance of Evaluations 323(1)

i Objective Considerations 324(1)

ii Subjective Considerations 324(1)

c Applications of Standards 324(1)

4 Logistics 324(1)

V Work Schedules And Assignments 325(1)

A Work Hours 325(1)

B Work Assignments 325(1)

C Overtime 326(1)

VI Training 326(1)

A Access 326(1)

B Qualifications 326(1)

VII Promotions 327(1)

A Application for Promotion 327(1)

B Customer Preference 328(1)

Key Terms 328(1)

Discussion Questions 328(5)

15 Workplace Harassment

Chapter Objectives 333(1)

I Introduction 333(1)

II Sexual Harassment 334(2)

A Sex Discrimination Under title VII 334(1)

B Identity of Harasser and Victim 334(1)

C Extent of Wrongful Conduct 334(1)

D Quid Pro Quo Harassment 335(1)

E Hostile Work Environment 335(1)

1 Isolated or Annoying Comments Are Insufficient to Support a Claim 335(1)

2 Behavior Must Be Unwelcome 336(1)

a Participation in Behavior Is Not Determinative 336(1)

b Contemporaneous Complaint Is Not Determinative 336(1)

III Other Forms Of Discriminatory Harassment 336(2)

A Harassment Based on National Origin 337(1)

B Harassment Based on Religion 337(1)

1 Quid Pro Quo Harassment 338(1)

2 Hostile Work Environment 338(1)

C Harassment Based on a Disability 338(1)

IV Employer Liability 338(3)

A Extent of Potential Liability 339(1)

B Liability for Supervisor Conduct 339(1)

C Negligence Claim for the Failure to Act 339(1)

D Minimization of Risk 340(1)

1 Establish an Anti-Harassment Policy 340(1)

2 Establish a Process to Address Complaints 340(1)

3 Train Supervisors 340(1)

Key Terms 341(1)

Discussion Questions 341(4)

16 Workplace Privacy And Personal Expression

Chapter Objectives 345(1)

I Sources of Privacy Protections 346(3)

A Constitutional Protections 346(1)

B Statutory Protections 346(1)

C Common Law 347(1)

1 Appropriation of Name or Likeness 347(1)

2 Public Disclosure of Truthful but Private Facts 347(1)

3 Defamation 347(1)

4 Intrusion upon Seclusion 348(1)

a Establishing a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy 348(1)

i Physical Space 348(1)

ii Ownership 349(1)

b Establishing the Offensive Nature of Intrusion 349(1)

II Notice And Consent 349(3)

A Notice 349(1)

1 Verbal Notice 349(1)

2 Written Notice 350(1)

a Memorialize Policy in a Company Handbook 350(1)

b Post a Notification 351(1)

B Consent 351(1)

1 Express Consent 351(1)

2 Implied Consent 352(1)

III Searches And Inspections 352(6)

A Employee Property 353(1)

B Employer Property 353(1)

1 Office Space, Desks, and Lockers 353(1)

2 Computers and Laptops 353(1)

3 Managing Privacy Expectations 354(1)

C Employee Communications 354(1)

1 Telephone and Mail Communications 355(1)

2 Electronic Communications 355(1)

3 Electronic Communications Privacy Act (ECPA) 356(1)

a Scope of Coverage 356(1)

b Statutory Exceptions 357(1)

i Business Use Exception 357(1)

ii System Provider Exception 357(1)

iii Consent Exception 357(1)

D Monitoring of Internet Use 358(1)

IV Employee Surveillance 358(2)

A Video Surveillance 358(1)

1 Regulation Under State Law 359(1)

2 Assessing Whether a Reasonable Expectation of Privacy Exists 359(1)

B Audio Surveillance 360(1)

V Absence of Monitoring 360(1)

VI Grooming and Dress Codes 361(2)

A Characteristic Must Be Related to Membership in a Protected Class 361(1)

B Religious Discrimination 362(1)

C Racial Discrimination 363(1)

Key Terms 363(1)

Discussion Questions 364(5)

17 Regulation of Off-Duty Conduct

Chapter Objectives 369(1)

I Introduction 370(1)

II Methods Used to Regulate Off-Duty Conduct 370(3)

A Early Regulation 370(1)

B State Regulation 371(1)

C Morals Clauses 371(1)

1 Earliest Uses 371(1)

2 Modern Use 372(1)

D Company Handbooks 373(1)

E Employees at Will 373(1)

III Justifying the Intrusive Nature of the Regulation 373(8)

A Establishing a Legitimate Business Interest for the Regulation 374(1)

B Linking the Regulation to a Public Policy Consideration 375(1)

C Balancing Test 375(1)

1 Nature of Conduct 375(1)

2 Nature of Employment 376(1)

3 Likelihood the Conduct Will Reoccur 376(1)

4 Off-Duty Conduct That Harms the Employer's Reputation 377(1)

a Determining the Impact of Off-Duty Conduct 377(1)

i Services Offered 377(1)

ii Potential for Publicity 378(1)

b Establishing Proof of Damages 378(1)

D Off-Duty Conduct That Leads to the Reluctance or Inability of Other Employees to Perform Their Work 379(1)

E Off-Duty Conduct That Renders an Employee Unable to Perform Job Duties 379(1)

F Mitigating Factors 380(1)

G Regulations Linked to Membership in a Protected Class 380(1)

1 Pregnancy 380(1)

2 Religion 381(1)

IV Lifestyle Choices 381(4)

A Applying the Regulation in a Nondiscriminatory Manner 381(1)

B Establishing a Legitimate Business Interest 382(1)

C Formalized Regulations Through a Wellness Program 382(1)

1 Relevance of the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act (GINA) 383(1)

a Voluntariness of Wellness Program 383(1)

b Gathering and Maintaining Information 383(1)

2 Relevance of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) 384(1)

3 Relevance of State Laws and Other Potential Restraints 384(1)

a Smoking 384(1)

b Obesity 385(1)

Key Terms 385(1)

Discussion Questions 385(6)

PART IV FIRING 391(94)

18 Employment at Will

Chapter Objectives 393(1)

I Introduction 393(2)

A Termination for Cause 394(1)

B Termination for No Cause 394(1)

C Practical Application of the Doctrine 394(1)

1 Literal Application Provides Expansive Termination Rights 394(1)

2 Restrictive Application Limits Termination Rights 395(1)

3 Middle Ground 395(1)

II Limitations on Termination Rights 395(11)

A Application of Federal and State Law 395(1)

1 Prohibition Against Workplace Discrimination 396(1)

2 Other Statutory Restrictions on Termination Rights 396(1)

B Judicial Modifications 396(1)

1 Public Policy Exception 397(1)

a No Precise Definition 397(1)

b Broad Categories 398(1)

c Exception Not Universally Accepted 398(1)

2 Promissory Estoppel/Detrimental Reliance 398(1)

a Framework 398(1)

b Reasonable to Rely on an Employer's Statement 399(1)

c Failure to Enforce the Promise Would Produce an Unjust Result 400(1)

3 Duty of Good Faith and Fair Dealing 400(1)

C Implied Contracts 401(1)

1 Statements About Satisfactory Job Performance May Suggest Continued Employment is Guaranteed 401(1)

2 Verbal and Written Employer Statements May Suggest Continued Employment is Guaranteed for a Specific Length of Time 401(1)

3 Company Handbooks 402(1)

a Content 403(1)

b Binding Nature 403(1)

c Potential for Certain Provisions to Limit Termination Rights 403(1)

i Progressive Discipline 404(1)

ii Termination Rights 404(1)

iii Severance Policy 404(1)

d At-will Disclaimer 404(1)

i Content 405(1)

ii Format 405(1)

iii Judicial Response 405(1)

Key Terms 406(1)

Discussion Questions 406(7)

19 Ending the Employment Relationship

Chapter Objectives 413(1)

I Natural Conclusion to the Employment Relationship 414(1)

A Length of Time 414(1)

B Project-Based Employment Relationship 415(1)

C Contemplated Terms 415(1)

II Layoffs 415(7)

A Determining Which Employees to Lay Off 416(1)

B Providing Notice and Notice Pay 416(1)

C Offering Severance 417(1)

1 Calculating the Benefit 417(1)

2 Using Release Agreements 417(1)

D Notifying Employees of Layoff 418(1)

E Complying with the Federal Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification (WARN) Act 418(1)

1 Plant Closing and Mass Layoff 419(1)

2 Obligation to Provide Notice 419(1)

a Length of Notice Period 419(1)

b Exemptions 419(1)

i No Notice Required 419(1)

ii Partial Notice May Be Sufficient 420(1)

a Faltering Company 420(1)

b Unforeseen Consequences 420(1)

c Natural Disasters 420(1)

3 Content of Notification 421(1)

a U.S. Department of Labor (DOL) Guidance 421(1)

b Unionized Employees 421(1)

F Liability 421(1)

III Termination Rights Pursuant to Contractual Obligation 422(2)

A Fact-Specific Termination Rights 422(1)

B Duty of Good Faith and Fair Dealing 423(1)

C Promissory Estoppel/Detrimental Reliance 423(1)

IV Applicability of the Just-Cause Standard 424(4)

A Individual Employment Contracts 424(1)

B Collective Bargaining Agreements 425(1)

C State Laws 425(1)

D Judicial Imposition Based on Principle 426(1)

E Judicial Imposition Based on Employer Statements or Conduct 426(1)

1 Verbal Statements 426(1)

2 Company Handbooks 426(1)

a Termination Language 427(1)

b Probationary Periods and Progressive Discipline 427(1)

3 Voluntary Use 428(1)

V Establishing Just Cause 428(13)

A Definition 429(1)

B Framework 429(1)

1 Notice 430(1)

a Value of Communicating Work Rules and Expectations 430(1)

i Refrain from Making Assumptions About Acceptable Standards of Behavior 430(1)

ii Communication of Rule May Not Be Necessary 430(1)

b Methods of Providing Notice 431(1)

i Verbal Notice 431(1)

a Face-to-Face Conversation 431(1)

b Verbal Notice in Group Setting 431(1)

ii Written Notice 432(1)

a Company Handbook 432(1)

b Written Correspondence 432(1)

iii Posting of the Rule 432(1)

iv Providing Assistance to Comply with the Rules 433(1)

a Training 433(1)

b Financial Assistance 433(1)

c Alternation of Working Conditions 433(1)

v Progressive Discipline 434(1)

c Employer Conduct That May Undermine Notice 434(1)

i Establishing a Past Practice 435(1)

ii Reverting to Prior Policy 435(1)

2 Reasonableness of the Rule 436(1)

3 Investigation 436(1)

a Timeliness 436(1)

i Supports Severity of Misconduct 437(1)

ii Increases Accuracy of Information 437(1)

iii Minimizes Undue Influence 437(1)

b Proof 437(1)

c Due Process 438(1)

d Interviews of Witnesses 438(1)

e Physical Evidence 438(1)

4 Uniform Application of the Rule 438(2)

5 Appropriateness of the Penalty 440(1)

C Categories of Behavior That May Constitute Just Cause 440(1)

1 Unsatisfactory Job Performance 440(1)

2 Serious Misconduct 441(1)

VI Importance of Written Documentation 441(1)

A Establish a Record of Past Problematic Behavior 442(1)

B Refute Allegations of Discriminatory Conduct 442(1)

VII Resignation and Constructive Discharge 442(3)

A Resignation 442(1)

B Constructive Discharge 443(1)

1 Altering of Working Conditions 443(1)

2 Allowing Intolerable Working Conditions to Continue 444(1)

Key Terms 445(1)

Discussion Questions 445(6)

20 Severance And Post-Employment Obligations

Chapter Objectives 451(1)

I Severance 452(5)

A Benefits to Employees 452(1)

1 Financial Benefit 452(1)

2 Job Security 453(1)

B Benefits to Employers 453(1)

1 Recruit and Retain Qualified Employees 453(1)

2 Good Will 453(1)

3 Avoid Litigation 453(1)

C Financial Component of Severance Benefit 454(1)

1 Eligible Employees 454(1)

2 Calculation of Benefit 455(1)

a Calculation Must Be Nondiscriminatory 455(1)

b Minimum and Maximum Payments 455(1)

c Reimbursement of Partial Payment on Obtaining Employment 456(1)

d Timing of Benefits 456(1)

3 Unemployment Benefits 456(1)

a Purpose of Unemployment Benefits 456(1)

b Eligibility for Unemployment Benefits 456(1)

D Noneconomic Benefits 457(1)

II Use of Release Agreements To Compel Individuals to Waive Certain Rights 457(6)

A Determining Rights to be Waived 458(1)

1 Limitations Under Federal Law 458(1)

2 Limitations Under State Law 458(1)

3 Limitations on the Timing of the Conduct That Gives Rise to a Claim 459(1)

B Applicability of Contract Law 460(1)

C Knowing and Voluntary 460(1)

1 Requirements 460(1)

2 No Specific Statutory References Required Other than for the Waiver of a Claim for Age Discrimination 461(1)

D Release of Claims Pursuant to the Older Workers Benefit Protection Act (OWBPA) 462(1)

1 Release Requirements Individual Employees 462(1)

2 Release Requirements for a Group of Employees 463(1)

III Use of Release Agreements to Protect Other Interests 463(2)

A Confidentiality of the Release and Its Terms 463(1)

B Confidentiality of Information Obtained During Employment 464(1)

IV Restrictive Convenants 465(5)

A Types of Restrictive Covenants 465(1)

1 Non-Solicitation Agreement 465(1)

2 Noncompete Clause 466(1)

3 Non-Disparagement Clause 466(1)

B Limitations on Restrictive Covenants 467(1)

1 Must Protect a Legitimate Business Interest 467(1)

2 Must Be Supported by Consideration 468(1)

3 Must Be Reasonable in Scope 468(1)

a Conduct 468(1)

b Geography 469(1)

c Duration 469(1)

V Employment References 470(2)

A No Obligation to Provide References 470(1)

B Negligent Referral 471(1)

C Liability for Providing References Under Title VII 471(1)

D Informal Reference Checks 472(1)

VI Other Potential Sources of Post-Employment Liability 472(5)

A Defamation 473(1)

1 Elements of a Defamation Claim 473(1)

a Communication Harms an Individual's Reputation 473(1)

b Publication 473(1)

c False 474(1)

2 Affirmative Defenses 474(1)

a Truth 474(1)

b Absolute Privilege 475(1)

c Qualified Privilege 475(1)

d Consent 475(1)

B Tortious Interference with Contractual Relationships 476(1)

C Post-Employment Retaliation 477(1)

Key Term 477(1)

Discussion Questions 478(7)
Glossary 485(14)
Index 499