Federal environmental law : the user's guide / 2nd ed.

Table Of Contents:
Dedications iii
Acknowledgements iv
Preface v

Administrative Law 1(51)

Introduction 1(1)

The Relationship Between Administrative Law and Environmental Law 2(5)

Public Policy 2(1)

Environmental Statutes 3(1)

United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 3(1)

Policy 3(1)

History 4(1)

EPA Today 4(1)

Agency Powers, Functions and Accountability 5(1)

Agency Powers and Functions 5(1)

Legislative Functions 6(1)

Judicial Functions 6(1)

Executive Functions 6(1)

Agency Accountability 7(1)

The Administrative Record 7(1)

Judicial Review 7(1)

Rulemaking 7(6)

In General 7(2)

Informal Rulemaking 9(1)

Hybrid Rulemaking 10(1)

Negotiated Rulemaking 11(1)

Public Legislative Hearing 11(1)

Formal Rulemaking 12(1)

Adjudication 13(3)

In General 13(1)

Informal Adjudications 14(1)

Formal Adjudications 15(1)

Enforcement 16(14)

In General 16(1)

Administrative Remedies 17(1)

Notice Letters 18(1)

Consent Agreements and Consent Decrees 18(1)

Modifications or Revocations of Permits 19(1)

Administrative Fines 19(1)

Injunctions 20(1)

Administrative Orders 20(1)

Civil Remedies 21(1)

In General 21(1)

Injunctions 22(1)

Criminal Remedies 23(1)

Policy and History 23(1)

Historical Trends in Criminal Enforcement 24(1)

Elements of Environmental Crimes 25(1)

Penalties and Sanctions 26(1)

Burden of Proof 26(1)

Citizen Suits 27(1)

Purpose 27(1)

Types of Citizen Suits 28(1)

Statutory Authority 28(1)

Citizens Suits 29(1)

Litigation Costs 29(1)

Conclusion 30(1)

The Administrative Record 30(5)

Policy 30(1)

Statutory Authority 31(1)

Regulatory Authority 31(1)

Contents 32(1)

Judicial Interpretations 33(2)

Judicial Review 35(16)

In General 35(1)

Unreview Ability 35(2)

Jurisdiction 37(1)

Standing 37(1)

Rule of Presumption of Judicial Review 38(1)

Express Preclusion of Reviewability 38(1)

Standing Created by the APA 39(1)

Timing 40(1)

The Ripeness Doctrine 40(1)

The Final Order Rule 41(1)

The Exhaustion Doctrine 41(1)

The Mootness Doctrine 42(1)

The Primary Jurisdiction Doctrine 42(2)

Scope and Standard of Review 44(2)

APA Provisions on Scope and Standard of Review 46(1)

De Novo Review 47(1)

Arbitrary and Capricious Standard 47(1)

Substantial Evidence Standard 48(1)

Strict Scrutiny Standard 49(1)

Remedies 49(1)

Actions Not Consistent with Prior Agency Policies 50(1)

Action is Unconstitutional, Outside Legal Authority or Procedurally Flawed 50(1)

Action is Not Supported by Substantial Evidence 50(1)

Conclusion 51(1)

National Environmental Policy Act 52(41)

Introduction 52(1)

Policy 53(6)

Statutory Approach 54(1)

Congressional Declaration of Purpose 54(1)

Congressional Declaration of National Environmental Policy 54(1)

Federal Government's Responsibility 55(1)

Citizen's Responsibility 55(1)

Judicial Interpretation 55(1)

Environmental Consequences Must be Considered 56(1)

The Hard Look Doctrine 56(2)

Waiver of Sovereign Immunity 58(1)

No Substitutes for an Environmental Assessment or an Environmental Impact Statement 58(1)

NEPA Requires Alternatives 59(1)

Practical Application 59(4)

The Environmental Assessment (EA) 60(1)

The Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) 61(1)

The Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) 62(1)

Application of NEPA 63(10)

Is an EIS Required? 63(1)

Federal Agency Review 63(1)

Conditions that Mandate an EIS 63(1)

The Action Must be Federal 64(1)

The Action Must be Major 65(1)

The Action Must Significantly Affect the Human Environment 66(4)

Judicial Interpretation of ``Significant'' 70(1)

Significantly Affect 71(1)

Cumulative Effects May be Significant 71(1)

Categorical Exclusions (CATXs) 72(1)

NEPA'S Procedural Steps 73(19)

Prepare an EA 74(1)

Determine Whether to Prepare an EIS or FONSI 75(1)

FONSI 75(1)

Challenges to the FONSI 76(2)

Follow the CEQ Regulations Throughout the NEPA Process 78(1)

Issuing the EIS 79(1)

Rule of Reason Test 79(1)

Timing 79(1)

Notice of Intent 80(1)

Scoping 80(1)

Lead Agency 81(1)

The Scoping Process 81(1)

Implementing The Scoping Process 82(8)

Create an Administrative Record 90(1)

Regulatory Authority 91(1)

Contents 91(1)

Judicial Review 92(1)

Conclusion 92(1)

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 93(65)

Introduction 93(5)

Background 94(1)

Legislative History 95(1)

Organization of SWDA & RCRA 96(2)

Subtitle C: Hazardous Waste 98(49)

Solid Waste Determination 98(1)

Exemptions 99(1)

Discarded Material 100(1)

Recycled Material 100(2)

Non-Solid, ``Solid'' Waste 102(1)

Hazardous Waste 102(1)

Types of Hazardous Waste 103(1)

Listed Hazardous Waste 103(3)

Characteristic Hazardous Wastes 106(2)

Mixtures of Hazardous and Non-Hazardous Waste 108(3)

Hazardous Waste Exclusions 111(2)

Residue From Empty Containers 113(1)

Hazardous Waste Regulation 114(1)

Overview 114(1)

Cradle-to-Grave System of Regulation 114(1)

State Authorization to Regulate Hazardous Waste 115(1)

Generators of Hazardous Waste 115(1)

Types of Generators 116(2)

Formal Generator Responsibilities 118(1)

Hazardous Waste Identification 119(1)

EPA Generator Identification Number 119(1)

Prepare a Manifest 120(1)

Packaging and Labeling Hazardous Waste 121(1)

Accumulating or Storing Hazardous Waste 122(1)

Prepare Reports 123(1)

Recordkeeping 124(1)

Generator Liability 124(1)

Transporters of Hazardous Waste 125(1)

Formal Transporter Responsibilities 125(1)

EPA Identification Number 125(1)

Manifesting 125(1)

Handling 126(1)

Recordkeeping 126(1)

Spill Response Requirements 126(1)

Transporter Becomes a Generator 126(1)

Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs) 127(1)

Permitting Procedures for TSDFs 128(1)

Hazardous Waste Permit 129(1)

Applicable Permit Standards 129(1)

Permit by Incorporation 129(1)

Additional Requirements 129(1)

Permit Application Form and Procedures 130(1)

Permit Modifications 130(1)

Facilities Operating under Interim Status 131(1)

Submission of Part A and Interim Status 131(1)

Submission of Part B 131(1)

Changes During Interim Status 132(1)

Loss of Interim Status 132(1)

Formal TSDF Responsibilities 133(1)

EPA Identification Number 133(1)

Required Notices 134(1)

Waste Analysis 134(1)

Security 134(1)

Inspections 135(1)

Personnel Training 135(1)

Manifesting, Recordkeeping and Reporting 136(1)

TSDF Preparedness and Prevention 136(1)

Groundwater Monitoring Requirements 137(1)

Closure and Post-Closure Requirements 138(1)

Financial Responsibility Requirements Under Closure Operations 139(1)

Liability Coverage Requirements 139(1)

Corrective Action 140(4)

The Land Ban 144(1)

Schedule For Land Disposal Restrictions 144(1)

Treatment Standards 145(1)

Variances and Exceptions 146(1)

Effect of the Land Ban on Storage 146(1)

Subtitle D: Solid Waste Management 147(3)

Introduction 147(1)

Disposal Facilities 148(1)

Sanitary Landfill 148(2)

Open Dump 150(1)

Enforcement Remedies 150(5)

Administrative Remedies 150(1)

Administrative Compliance Orders 150(1)

Interim Status Corrective Action Orders 151(1)

Monitoring, Analysis and Testing Orders 151(1)

Civil Remedies 152(1)

Criminal Enforcement Authority 152(2)

Citizen Suits 154(1)

Scope of Citizen Suit Authority 154(1)

Notice Requirements 155(1)

Judicial Review 155(1)

Promulgatoin of Regulations 155(1)

Permit Decisions 156(1)

Other Final Agency Actions 156(1)

Conclusion 156(2)

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act 158(78)

Introduction 158(4)

Love Canal 159(1)

Congress Enacts Cercla 160(1)

Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 161(1)

Policy 162(1)

The Superfund Process 163(8)

Identifying Abandoned Sites 163(1)

Hazardous Substances Under CERCLA 164(1)

Notification of Releases at Active Sites 165(1)

Cerclis 166(1)

Preliminary Assessment (PA) 166(2)

The National Priorities List (NPL) 168(1)

Investigation 169(1)

Remedial Actions 170(1)

Section 107 Liability and Cost Recovery Actions 171(58)

Introduction to Cost Recovery Actions 171(1)

Causation 171(2)

Elements 173(1)

Property Must be a Vessel or Facility 173(1)

Vessel 173(1)

Facility 174(2)

Potentially Responsible Parties 176(1)

Current Owners and Operators 177(1)

Owner 178(1)

Operator 179(3)

Special Conditions and Exemptions From Liability 182(2)

Prior Owners and Operators: CERCLA's Retroactive Provision 184(1)

Generators 185(3)

Transporters 188(1)

There Must be a Hazardous Substance 189(1)

The Petroleum Exclusion 190(2)

Release, or Threat of Release and the Incurrence of Response Costs 192(1)

Release 192(1)

Threat of a Release 193(1)

Incurrence of Response Costs 193(1)

Response Costs 193(2)

All Costs of Removal or Remedial Actions 195(4)

Any Other Necessary Costs of Response 199(1)

Damages for Loss of Natural Resources 200(1)

Health Assessments 201(1)

Necessary and Consistent with the National Contingency Plan (NCP) 202(1)

The NCP 202(2)

CERCLA-Quality Cleanup 204(1)

Extent of Liability 204(2)

Individual Liability 206(2)

Organizational Liability 208(1)

Retroactive Liability 208(2)

Strict Liability 210(1)

Joint and Several Liability 211(1)

Contribution 212(2)

Divisibility 214(1)

Defenses 214(1)

Act of God: Force Majeure 215(1)

Act of War 216(1)

Act of a Third Party 217(1)

Innocent Landowner 218(2)

Lender 220(2)

Inheritance or Bequest 222(1)

Settlements 222(1)

Mixed-Work Settlements 223(1)

Mixed-Fund Settlements 223(1)

Non-Binding Preliminary Allocation of Responsibility (NBAR) 224(2)

De Minimis Settlements 226(2)

Cash-Out Settlements 228(1)

Covenants Not To Sue 229(1)

Government Cleanup Options 229(5)

Section 104 Cleanup Actions 231(2)

Section 106 Orders 233(1)

Enforcement Remedies 233(1)

Violations of Section 106 Orders 234(1)

Conclusion 234(2)

The Clean Air Act 236(59)

Introduction 236(6)

New Programs 237(1)

Mobile Source Regulations 237(1)

Acid Rain Regulations 238(1)

Stratospheric Ozone Protection 239(1)

Major Programs 240(1)

New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) 240(1)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 240(1)

Nonattainment Areas (NA) Program 241(1)

Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) 242(1)

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs) Program 242(1)

New Source Performance Standards (NSPS) 242(6)

Introduction 242(1)

Statutory Scheme 243(1)

Relevant Statutory Section 243(1)

The Federal Role 244(1)

List of Categories 244(1)

Standards of Performance 244(1)

Program Delegation 245(1)

The State Role 246(1)

Program Delegation 246(1)

Permit Requirements 246(1)

Waivers 246(1)

Judicial Interpretations 247(1)

Arbitrary and Capricious Standards of Review 247(1)

NSPS and the Bubble Policy 247(1)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) 248(12)

Introduction 248(1)

Statutory Scheme 249(1)

Relevant Statutory Sections 249(1)

The Federal Role 250(1)

Air Pollutants List 250(1)

Air Quality Criteria 250(1)

Air Pollution Control Techniques 251(1)

Setting the Standards 252(1)

Approval of State Implementation Plans (SIPs) 253(2)

The State's Role 255(1)

Air Quality Control Regions (AQCRs) 255(1)

Contents of a SIP 256(1)

Submission of SIPs to EPA 257(1)

Current NAAQS Pollutants 257(1)

CO: Carbon Monoxide 257(1)

Pb: Lead 257(1)

Nox/NO2: Nitrogen Oxides 258(1)

O3: Ozone 258(1)

PM10: Particulate Matter 258(1)

So2: Sulfur Dioxide 259(1)

Nonattainment Areas (NA) Program 260(7)

Introduction 260(1)

Statutory Scheme 261(1)

Relevant Statutory Sections 261(1)

The Federal Role 261(1)

Standards of Performance 261(1)

EPA Designates and Classifies Areas 261(1)

Review and Approve State Permit Programs 262(1)

The State Role 262(1)

SIP Submission to EPA 262(1)

Section 172(c) Requirements 263(1)

Section 173 Permit Requirements 264(2)

Judicial Interpretations 266(1)

Partial SIP Approval Allowed 266(1)

SIP Provisions Disallowed 266(1)

Bubble Policy Allowed 266(1)

Denial of County Redesignation Upheld 267(1)

Prevention of Significant Deterioration Program (PSD) 267(9)

Introduction 267(1)

Statutory Scheme 268(1)

Relevant Statutory Sections 268(1)

The Federal Role in Subclassifying Geographic Areas 269(1)

Class I Areas 269(1)

Class II Areas 270(1)

Class III Areas 270(1)

The State Role 270(1)

Listing 271(1)

Area Class Redesignation 271(1)

PSD and the State Implementation Plan 272(1)

Section 165 Permit Requirements 272(2)

Judicial Interpretations 274(1)

Air Deterioration Prohibited 274(1)

Judicial Review of PSD Regulations 275(1)

New Refinery Allowed in a PSD Area 275(1)

Redesignation to Class I Area Allowed 275(1)

Nonattainment Area Redesignated as a PSD Area 275(1)

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (Neshaps) 276(5)

Introduction 276(1)

Statutory Scheme 277(1)

Relevant Statutory Section 277(1)

The Federal Role 278(1)

Hazardous Air Pollutants List 278(1)

Categories and Subcategories List 278(1)

Emission Standards for Major Sources 278(1)

Emissions from Area Sources to be Studied 279(1)

The State Role 279(1)

State HAPs Program 279(1)

Permit Requirements 279(1)

Judicial Interpretations 280(1)

Emission Standards Required for Listed HAPs 280(1)

EPA Interpretations Upheld 280(1)

Enforcement Provisions 281(13)

Introduction 281(3)

General Permit Requirements 284(1)

Introduction 284(1)

Relevant Statutory Sections 285(1)

Definitions 285(1)

Permit Contents 285(1)

Timelines for Permit Applications 286(1)

Permit Conditions 286(1)

Notifications 286(1)

Self Regulation by States 286(1)

Compliance Assistance for Small Businesses 286(1)

Government Actions 287(1)

Administrative Remedies 287(2)

Civil Remedies 289(1)

Criminal Remedies 289(2)

Citizen Actions 291(2)

Judicial Interpretations 293(1)

SIP Enforcement Allowed 293(1)

Aerial Photography Allowed Without a Warrant 293(1)

EPA Must Issue Final Standards 294(1)

Conclusion 294(1)

The Clean Water Act 295(59)

Introduction 295(13)

Sources of Pollution 297(1)

Point Sources 297(3)

Nonpoint Sources 300(1)

Types of Pollutants 301(1)

Conventional Pollutants 301(1)

Toxic Pollutants 302(1)

Nonconventional Pollutants 302(1)

Statutory Scheme 303(1)

Person 303(1)

Discharge 304(1)

Pollutants 305(1)

Navigable Waters of the United States 306(2)

State Water Quality Standards 308(4)

Designating Uses 308(1)

Antidegradation Policy 308(1)

Five Designated Uses 309(1)

Testing Water Quality and Mixing Zones 310(1)

Downgrading Designated Uses 310(2)

Federal Effluent Limitations 312(1)

Federal Role 312(1)

State Role 312(1)

The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit Program 313(23)

State Delegation 314(1)

Permit Conditions 315(1)

Broad Discretion 315(1)

Application 315(1)

Permit Issuance Process 316(2)

Term 318(1)

Anti-Backsliding Policy 318(1)

Standards of Performance 319(1)

Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology (BCT) 320(1)

BCT Applied 321(1)

Factors Considered 321(1)

Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT) 321(1)

BAT Applied 322(1)

Factors Considered 323(1)

Best Demonstrated Control Technology (BDT) 323(1)

BDT Applied 324(1)

Factors Considered 325(1)

NEPA Applies 325(1)

Treatment Levels 326(1)

Primary Treatment Levels 326(1)

Secondary Treatment Levels 326(1)

Tertiary Treatment Levels 327(1)

Individual Control Strategies (ICS) 327(1)

Pretreatment Standards 328(1)

Implementation 328(1)

Three Types of Standards 328(1)

General Prohibitions 328(1)

``Specific Prohibitions'' 329(1)

Categorical Pretreatment Standards 329(1)

Removal Credits Program 329(1)

Variances 330(1)

Nonconventional Pollutants Variances 331(1)

Fundamentally Different Factors (FDF) Variance 332(1)

Thermal Discharge Variance 332(1)

Pretreatment Standard Variance 333(1)

Deepwater Discharge Variance 333(1)

Defenses 334(1)

Bypass 335(1)

Upset 335(1)

Wetlands Protection and the Dredge and Fill Permit Program 336(4)

Dredge and Fill Permit 337(2)

Exemptions 339(1)

Oil Spill Program 340(2)

No Discharge Policy 341(1)

Regulations 341(1)

Enforcement 342(1)

Nonpoint Source Pollution Program 342(3)

Nonpoint Source Management Programs 343(1)

Area Wide Waste Treatment Programs 344(1)

Transboundary Pollution 344(1)

Enforcement Provisions 345(8)

Introduction 345(1)

Government Actions 346(1)

Administrative Remedies 346(1)

Records, Reports and Inspections 346(1)

Compliance Orders 346(1)

Administrative Penalties 346(1)

Public Notice and Hearing Required 347(1)

Civil Remedies 348(1)

Criminal Remedies 349(2)

Citizen Actions 351(2)

Conclusion 353(1)
Table of Cases 354(5)
Acronyms 359(5)
Glossary 364(33)
Index 397