Ecological knowledge and environmental problem-solving Concepts and case studies

Ecological Knowledge and Environmental Problem-Solving 1
Copyright 2
Preface 5
Contents 9
Introduction 13
STRUCTURE AND AUDIENCE OF THE REPORT 15
Structure 15
Audience 16
TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 16
Complex Linkages 16
Density Dependence 17
The Uniqueness of Individuals 17
Keystone Species 17
Biological Magnification 18
Population Fragmentation 18
Stability Boundaries 19
Aggregate Variables 19
Complexity and Uncertainty 20
Scales in Space and Time 20
APPLICATIONS OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 21
Renewable-Resource Management 21
Conservation of Species 22
Control of Pests and Diseases 22
Impact Assessment and Prediction of Effects 22
Preservation of Communities 23
Preservation of Habitat 23
Contaminants and Toxic Substances 23
Mitigation of Effects of Construction 24
Restoration 24
General Applications 24
THE CASE STUDIES 24
RECOMMENDATIONS 27
REFERENCES 29
I Kinds of Ecological Knowledge and Their Applications 33
1 Individuals and Single Populations 35
IDENTIFYING KEY FACTORS 37
BEHAVIOR 38
Habitat Selection 38
Mating Systems 39
Social Interactions 39
POPULATION DYNAMICS 40
Population Regulation 40
Population Stability 41
Dispersion and Population Movements 43
Growth Rates, Age, and Size 44
Age Structure 45
Sex Ratios and Sex Biases 46
GENETIC AND EVOLUTIONARY CONCERNS 47
The Evolution of Resistance to Pesticides 47
Genetic Consequences of Differential Harvesting by Sex and Size 48
Genetic Consequences of Small Population Size 49
2 Population Interactions 50
PREDATOR-PREY INTERACTIONS 52
COMPETITIVE INTERACTIONS 54
MUTUALISTIC INTERACTIONS 57
INDIRECT EFFECTS 58
CONCLUSIONS 58
3 Community Ecology 59
INTRODUCTION 59
SPECIES COMPOSITION 60
FACTORS AFFECTING SPECIES DIVERSITY 62
Predation 64
Competition 64
Productivity 65
Spatial Factors 66
Summary 66
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION 67
STABILITY AND RESILIENCE OF ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES 68
INVADABILITY 69
SUBSTITUTABILITY 70
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION 70
CONCLUSIONS 72
4 Materials and Energy 73
PERTURBATIONS AND PRODUCTIVITY 75
CHEMICAL PATHWAYS AND BIOLOGICAL CONCENTRATION 75
NUTRIENT FLUXES 76
INTERACTIONS AMONG PRODUCTIVITY, BIOMASS, AND NUTRIENTS 77
INDEXES OF ECOSYSTEM FUNCTIONING 78
CONCLUSIONS 79
5 Scales in Space and Time 80
PATCHINESS AND COMMUNITY COMPOSITION 80
Species-Area Relationship 80
Extinction of Small Populations 81
Patch Geometry and Edge Effects 82
DISTRIBUTION OF PATCHES IN SPACE AND TIME 83
Spatial Considerations 83
Temporal Considerations 85
CONCLUSIONS 85
6 Analog, Generic, and Pilot Studies and Treatment of a Project as an Experiment 87
INTRODUCTION 87
ANALOG STUDIES 87
GENERIC STUDIES 88
PILOT-SCALE EXPERIMENTS 90
TREATING A PROJECT OR ACTION AS AN EXPERIMENT 91
7 Indicator Species and Biological Monitoring 93
CHOICE OF ORGANISMS TO USE FOR BIOLOGICAL MONITORING 94
MONITORING AND ENVIRONMENTAL SPECIMEN BANKING 97
MONITORING OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES 98
MONITORING AND THE IDEA OF A PROJECT AS AN EXPERIMENT 99
8 Dealing With Uncertainty 100
SOURCES OF UNCERTAINTY 100
Complexity 100
Natural Variability 101
Random Variation 102
Errors of Estimation 102
Lack of Knowledge 103
MANAGING IN THE FACE OF UNCERTAINTY 103
9 The Special Problem of Cumulative Effects 105
THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 105
KINDS OF CUMULATIVE EFFECTS 107
DEFINITION OF CUMULATIVE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 108
DIFFICULTIES IN PREDICTING AND CONTROLLING CUMULATIVE EFFECTS 109
SCALE AND THE RATES OF CRITICAL PROCESSES 110
MANAGING CUMULATIVE EFFECTS: BEYOND A CASE-BY-CASE APPROACH 112
RECOMMENDATIONS 114
10 A Scientific Framework For Environmental Problem-Solving 116
DEFINING ENVIRONMENTAL GOALS AND SCIENTIFIC QUESTIONS 117
SCOPING THE PROBLEM 119
ESTABLISHING STUDY BOUNDARIES 121
DEVELOPING AND TESTING HYPOTHESES 122
SPECIFYING PREDICTIONS AND DETERMINING THE SIGNIFICANCE OF EFFECTS 124
MONITORING 125
SUMMARY: DEVELOPING A STUDY STRATEGY 126
11 References 128
II Selected Case Studies 147
12 North Pacific Halibut Fishery Management 149
Case Study 150
INTRODUCTION 150
BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MANAGEMENT 151
Assessment of Stock 151
Relationship Between Stock and Recruitment 152
Catchability 152
Migration Patterns 153
Natural and Fishing Mortality 153
Growth Rates 153
GENERAL APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT 154
Boundaries 154
Monitoring 154
Cumulative Effects 155
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 155
Ecological Facts 155
Theory and General Principles 155
Specific Models of Stock Abundance 156
Project as Experiment 157
ROLE OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 158
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 159
REFERENCES 159
Committee Comment 161
References 162
13 Vampire Bat Control in Latin America 163
Case Study 164
INTRODUCTION 164
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 165
APPROACHES TO CONTROLLING VAMPIRE BATS 165
Ecology of Vampire Bats 166
Development of Control Methods 166
Control Techniques 169
Vaccines 170
KINDS OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE USED 170
Ecological Facts 170
Pilot Studies 171
Project as Experiment 171
UTILIZATION AND TRAINING 171
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE PROGRAM 172
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 172
REFERENCES 173
Committee Comment 175
14 Biological Control of California Red Scale 177
Case Study 178
INTRODUCTION 178
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM 179
ECOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM 180
USES OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 181
Ecosystem Definition 181
Significance of Impact 181
Study Strategy and Monitoring 182
Established Boundaries 182
Developing and Implementing a Study Strategy 183
Specific Predictions and Hypotheses 184
Developing and Implementing a Monitoring Program 188
Future Goals 189
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE 190
Generally Accepted Ecological Facts 190
General Theory and General Principles of Ecology 190
Specific Models 191
Analog Studies 192
Project as Experiment 192
Expert Judgment 193
CONTRIBUTION OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE TO PROJECT RESULTS 194
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 195
REFERENCES 195
Committee Comment 198
References 201
15 Experimental Control of Malaria in West Africa 202
Case Study 203
INTRODUCTION 203
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 204
GENERAL APPROACH 205
DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROJECT 205
Boundaries 205
Study Strategy and Monitoring 206
USES OF KNOWLEDGE 207
The Mosquito 207
The Malaria Parasite 208
GENERAL THEORY 209
A SPECIFIC MODEL 211
CONCLUSION: THE CASE STUDY AND ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 212
REFERENCES 215
Committee Comment 215
Reference 216
16 Protecting Caribou During Hydroelectric Development in Newfoundland 217
Case Study 218
INTRODUCTION 218
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 220
Caribou and the Upper Salmon Development 220
Ecological Questions and Issues 223
OBTAINING RELEVANT ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 224
Population Characteristics, Migration, and Distribution 224
Behavior 225
Sensitivity Criteria 225
Conclusions 226
USES OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 227
Valued Ecosystem Components 227
Significance of Impacts 228
Establishment of Boundaries 228
Development and Implementation of Study Strategy 229
Development of Predictions and Hypotheses 230
Monitoring 231
Cumulative Effects 231
SOURCES OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 232
Ecological Facts 232
Theory and General Principles 232
Specific Models 233
Analog Studies 233
Pilot Studies 233
The Project as an Experiment 233
Expert Judgment 234
CONTRIBUTION OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 234
REFERENCES 236
Committee Comment 237
17 Conserving a Regional Spotted Owl Population 239
Case Study 240
INTRODUCTION 240
THE BASIC PROBLEM AND APPROACH 241
ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE USED IN DEVELOPING THE MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES 244
Studies of the Ecology of Spotted Owls 244
Long-Term Population Viability 245
THE PLANNING PROCESS FOR SPOTTED OWLS 250
CONTRIBUTION OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE TO THE CASE STUDY RESULTS 254
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 255
REFERENCES 255
Committee Comment 257
References 259
18 Restoring Derelict Lands in Great Britain 260
Case Study 261
INTRODUCTION 261
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS IN REINSTATEMENT 262
APPROACHES TO RECREATING SEMINATURAL GRASSLAND 266
USES OF KNOWLEDGE 268
Low-Productivity Swards 269
Sward Diversification 270
Soil Seed Banks 271
Succession in Urban Grassland 272
SOURCES OF ECOLOGICAL INFORMATION 273
Ecological Facts 274
Ecological Theory 276
Analog Studies 276
Expert Judgment 277
CONTRIBUTION OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 279
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 280
REFERENCES 281
Committee Comment 284
References 286
19 Optimizing Timber Yields in New Brunswick Forests 287
Case Study 288
INTRODUCTION 288
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 289
THE APPROACH 290
USES OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 291
Valued Ecosystem Component 291
Significance of Impacts 291
Bounding the Problem 291
Study Strategy Development 292
Hypotheses 296
Cumulative Effects 297
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 298
Generally Accepted Ecological Facts 298
Specific Models 300
CONTRIBUTION OF RESULTS TO ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 302
APPLICATION OF THE TOOL 307
CONCLUSION 307
REFERENCES 308
Committee Comment 309
References 312
20 Control of Eutrophication in Lake Washington 313
Case Study 314
REFERENCES 322
Committee Comment 324
References 327
21 Raising the Level of a Subarctic Lake 329
Case Study 330
REFERENCES 338
Committee Comment 340
References 342
22 Ecological Effects of Nuclear Radiation 343
Case Study 344
INTRODUCTION 344
THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 345
APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEM OF RADIOACTIVITY IN THE ENVIRONMENT 347
Movement of Radionuclides in the Environment 347
Radiation Effects 349
CONCLUSION 350
REFERENCES 351
APPENDIX: SOME SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON RADIOECOLOGY 354
Committee Comment 355
References 356
23 Ecological Effects of Forest Clearcutting 357
Case Study 358
INTRODUCTION 358
BACKGROUND 359
APPROACHES TO EVALUATING LOSSES 360
Leaching and Erosion 360
Biomass Removal 362
Nutrients Remaining in Soil 363
Nutrient Replenishment 364
Budgets and Sensitivity Analysis 364
CONCLUSION 365
REFERENCES 366
Committee Comment 368
Reference 369
24 Environmental Effects of DDT 370
Case Study 371
INTRODUCTION 371
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 372
KEY ISSUES 375
ECOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DDT 376
USES OF ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 377
Valued Ecosystem Components 377
Importance of the Impacts 377
Boundaries of the Problem 377
Study Strategy 378
Monitoring 378
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 379
Generally Accepted Ecological Facts 379
Theory and General Principles of Ecology 381
The Value of Experiments 381
Expert Judgment 381
REFERENCES 382
Committee Comment 383
Reference 386
Index 387